Chapter-2
Environmental Science Natural Resources
INTRODUCTION
A natural resource may be defined as any material given to us by nature which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful.
For an example wood is used for making furniture. Yarn obtained from cotton is used for weaving cloth. Likewise, various machine, tools and household goods are made of metals. Now furniture, clothes, machine, tools are more valuable than their raw form i.e., raw form i.e., wood, cotton and metal, respectively. The wood, metal resources. It is impossible to obtain valuable items from any resources. Thus, water, minerals, forests, wildlife as well as human beings are resources. Any material may be called, as a resource provided, and appropriate technology is available to transform that into more valuable goods.
Renewable and Non-renewable Resources
On the basis of continuity, the resources are classified as under:
(1) Renewable Resources
(2) Non-renewable Resources.
1. Renewable Resources
Resources, which can be renewed along with their exploitation, are always available for use. Hence, they are called renewable resources. For instance, forests are renewable. If trees are felled for wood, original forest covers may be maintained through planning new trees i.e., a forestation. Likewise, solar energy and wind energy are examples of renewable resources.
2. Non-renewable Resources
The formation of some resources like iron ore, coal, mineral oil etc. has taken several thousand years. Once they are used in unlimited way, they cannot be easily replaced. Thus, their exploitation at large scale will result in their fast depletion. Some such resources are called non-renewable resources or exhaustible
3. Cyclic Resources
For resources there is no final use as they can be used continuously. For example, water used in industry and domestic ways can be cleaned and used again for similar or other purpose. Such resources are given the name of Cyclic Resources
FOREST RESOURCES
1. Importance of Forest Resources
The importance of forest resources can be explained as under:
1. Ecological Balance: Forests and wildlife are essential to maintain ecological balance of an area.
2. Renewable Natural Resources: Forests are an important renewable natural resource.
3. Eco-system: Trees dominate forest ecosystem; their species content varieties in different parts of the world
4. Economic Development: Forest contributes to the economic development of the country because they provide goods and services to the people and industry.
5. Environment Quality: The forest enhanced the quality of environment by influencing the life supporting system.
6. Safeguard against Pollution: Forest check air pollution and soil erosion. Thus, they exercise safety and against pollution
7. Soil Conservation: Forest save the hillslopes from landslides.
8. Wind Erosion: In deserts, trees reduce wind erosion by checking wind velocity
9. Check the Extension Balance: The forest checks strong gales and keeps the soil intact beneath the roots of trees and thus checks extension of desert
10. Maintains Ecological Balance: The forest check pollution of air through increasing oxygen content of the air.
11. Attract Rainfall: By causing condensation of water vapor in clouds, forests attract rains.
12. Control Floods: The floods are controlled because forests dry up rainwater like sponge
13. Linked with Cultural and Civilization: Forests are linked with our cultural and civilization
14. Supply of Raw Material: Forest supply wood, which is used as under:
(i) Fuel,
(ii) Raw material for various industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board.
(iii) Timber for furniture items.
(iv) To be used in packing articles like fruits, tea etc.
(v) For preparing matches, sport goods etc.
15. Minor Forest products: Some examples of minor forest products, are canes, gums, resins, dyes, flocks, medicines, tannins, lac, fibers, katha etc.
1. For tribal people are provided with food like tuber, roots, leaves, fruits, meat from birds and other animals etc.
16. Employment opportunities: About eight crore people are employed in wood-based industries like paper and match and small and cottage industries. Besides, those who are employed in the forest department in various states.
17. Revenue Receipts: The forest provides Rs. 400 crores per year as revenue to the government.
18. Fodder for Cattle: Forest provides fodder to cattle
19. Foreign Exchange Earners: Forest produces a great number of articles like essential oils, resins and dyes. Which find market in foreign countries. Nearly Rs. 50 crores are earned in foreign exchange through selling lac, turpentine oil and sandal wood oil to abroad.
Thus, the forests are nation’s wealth. They are useful to us directly and indirectly.
Areas Covered with Forests in India
Forests are a estimated from time to time. Some data collected in the basis of research made, are as under:
Brewbaker (1984)
According to Brewbaker, to 2890, total forest is of the world in 1990 was nearly 700 Mha. By 1975 it was reduced to 2890 Mha. It was also pointed out that it would be merely 2370 Mha by 200 A.D. Major reduction will be in tropics and subtropics (40.2), shown in Figs. 2.2 and 2.3
C.F.C. (1980)
According to Central Forestry Commission (CEF) (1980) in India the forest cover was around 74.8 Mha. It was 22.7% of the total land mass. A detailed study of forests carried out by CEF reveals the position of forests in India as under:
(a) The tropical dry deciduous (38.7%).
(b) The tropical moist deciduous (30.9%) type
(c) The tropical thorn 6.9%
(d) The tropical dry evergreen 0.1%
(e) The pure coniferous (high mountainous area) 6.3%
(f) The sal forest 16%
(g) The teak forest 13%
(h) The broad-leaved excluding Sal and Teak 55.8%
(i) The Bamboos including in plantations 8.8%
Ownership
(b) 2.6% (1.95 Mha) forest area is owned by corporate bodies
State Percentage of Forests Area
2. Bihar 17%
4. Haryana 2%
6. Jammu & Kashmir 61%
8. Tripura 50%
Distribution of Forests
The forest region in India is divided into eight distinct forest regions. These are as under:
(i) The Western Himalayan region
The region extends from Kashmir Kumaon. Here is the forest of pine, confers and broad-leaved temperate trees. Higher up, forests of blue pine spruce and silver fir occur.
(ii) The Eastern Himalayan region
This region comprises Darjeeling, Kurston and the adjacent tract. The temperate zone has forests of oaks, laurels, Rho dendrons, maples, alder and birch.
(iii) The Assam region
This region comprises the Brahmapootra and the Surma valleys and the intervening hill ranges. The region has evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboos and tall grasses.
(iv) The Ganga plain region
This region covers the area from the Aravali rangers to Bengal and Orissa. Widely different types are found only in small areas in the forests
(v) The Deccan region
This region has various kinds from scrub jungles to mixed deciduous forests
(vi) The Malabar region
This region is rich in forest vegetation. Besides, it produces important commercial crops, such as coconut pepper, coffee, tea. Besides, rubber, Cashawn and eucalyptus trees
(vii) The Andaman region
This region is rich in evergreen, semi-evergreen, mangrove, beach and diluvial forests
To conclude, there are nearly 45,000 species of plants including shrubs in the country. The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous vegetation cover itself comprises 15,000 species
OVER CONSUMPTION ON FORESTS REASONS
Population is increasing tremendously in our country. It has already crossed thousands of millions. Meeting its ever-increasing demand has resulted in over consumption of forests
1. Fuel wood, Timber and Pulpwood
The data show that (FAO, 1981) consumption of wood in developing countries is exactly the reverse of the developed ones. In the former, wood is used 82% for firewood and 18% respectively, In India, firewood demand is mostly in rural areas because the alternative source of energy, are yet to reach there. The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) had indicated a substantial rise in demand for wood by 200 A.D. for firewood and industry as is evident from the table given below:
2. Wood for Packing Purposes
Wood is needed, on a large scale, for our fruit industry, tea etc. It is estimated that for wooden crates nearly 0.5 Mm3 of wood is need (U.P. 01, J & K, 0.25 M, H.P. 0.15 Mm3 ).
3. Paper Board and Newsprint
With the rapidly increasing population growth our per capita consumption of paper is increasing from 2 kg to 4.5 kg per year. Bamboos and hardwood are the chief sources (70%) of raw materials for paper and board. Growing demand for 2.45 Mt will enhance dependence on bamboo and hardwood.
It is evident from the data that the pulpwood had gone to nearly 6 percent of the wood requirement by 2000. More than half of the pulpwood comes from bamboo as is shown in following table
There is a substantial in newspaper industry. As per data per capita requirement have gone up to 1. 1 kg by 2000, thus, the newsprint capacity was raised to 1.289 Mt. Following are the estimated requirements for raw materials for newsprint
It is evident that shortfall of newsprint would grow rapidly as well as continuously by the passage of time.
DEFORESTATION: MEANING AND RESULTS
Meaning of Deforestation
Deforestation is the process of felling trees indiscriminately resulting in nude or seminude surface of the hill hitherto covered by thick forests.
Causes of Deforestation
(a) Felling of trees to meet the ever-increasing demand of the cities
(b) Grazing by the local cattle, goats, sheep etc. They not only destroy the vegetation but also pull out the roots of plants. After denudation of our Himalayas, the process of deforestation started in the Shivalik range. Shivalik salt forests were over-exploited for industry use, i.e., railway sleepers etc. Consequently, the foothills of the Shivalik are in semi desert conditions.
(c) Meeting out the growing hunger for land. It has hit the ecology of the country badly very soon India is likely to have more of wasteland than productive land. Large-scale deforestation has badly affected the weather facing almost each year more of bleak than the normal weather.
(d) The increase in shifting (jhum) cultivation in Northeast and Orissa has also laid large in forest tracts bare. As the jhum cycle is shortened to six years only (in some districts, even 2-3 years only), too short period does not provide enough time for natural repair of damaged ecosystem
(e) A major cause of deforestation has been the construction of hill roads. About a decade back, they were about 30, 000 km long. Most of these roads are in state and most fragile belt of Himalayas. Road construction damaged the protective vegetation cover both above and below roads. It blocked natural and pollution streams.
Formidable Picture of Deforestation
Deforestation has been causing tremendous land erosion and landslides. India is losing about 6,000 million ton of topsoil annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees. The loss worked out from the topsoil erosion in 1973 was Rs. 700 crores, in 1976, 1977 and 1978 it was Rs. 889 crores. Rs. 1,200 crore and Rs. 1,091 crores respectively. The figures in recent years have risen formidably too high. Increasing number of livestock and migrating glaziers have led to degradation of forests and the consequent devastation. Data show that about two decades back these were nearly 1200 thousand sheep and goats in alpine areas of U.P. In addition, there also visited about 25,000 migratory grazers. There were also about 5-7,000 buffaloes owned by Gujar. Consequently, the forestry stock decreased from 13.79 m3/head in 1981 to 2.66 m3/head in 2001
Evil Consequences of Deforestation
In our country unabated deforestation over grazing and the growing hunger for land has hit the ecology of India badly. If it goes on, we may soon have more of wasteland than productive land. Large-scale deforestation has badly affected the weather. Evil consequences of deforestation can be summed up as under:
1. Adverse Effect on Productivity
It is noticed that the devasting effects of deforestation in India include soil, water and wind erosions, estimated to cost over 16,400 crores every year. Deforestation affects productivity of our croplands in two ways as under:
(i) The deforestation increases the soil erosion increase manifold. The soil so washed leads to an accentuated cycle of floods and drought.
(ii) Deforestation creates to use crowding and crop wastes as fuel mainly for cooking. As a result, no part of the plant goes back to loss in soil fertility
2. Land/Erosion and Landslides
Deforestation has been causing tremendous land erosion and landslides. Data reflect that about 6,000 million ton of topsoil is lost annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees. The loss worked out from the topsoil erosion in 1973 was Rs. 700 crores. The figures for the years 1976, 1977 and 1978 are Rs. 889 crores, Rs. 1,200 crore and Rs. 1,091 crores respectively.
3. Low Per Capita Forestland
As far as per capita forestland is concerned, India today is the poorest in the world. The per capita forestland in India is 0.10 hectare compared to the world average of 1 hectare.
TIMBER EXTRACTION: MINING, DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS IN FORESTS AND TRIBAL PEOPLE
Timber Extraction
It is estimated that India is losing 15 million hectares of forests cover year. If this trend continuous unchecked, it could take only a period 9 of 20 years hence to reach to Zero forest value in our country. During a period of 25 years (1951-1976) India has lost 4.1 million hectares of forests area. Trees have been felled in large number of fuel, fodder, valley projects, Industrial uses, road construction etc. India consumes nearly, 170 million Tonnes of firewood annually, and 10-15 million hectares of forests cover is being stripped every year to meet fuel requirements. The rise in fuelwood consumption can be noticed from the comparative study of the fuel consumption in earlier years. It was 86.3 million ton in 1953. It reached about 135 million ton in 1980. During a period of 20 years (1951 to 1971) forests have been cut for various purposes as under:
(1) For Agriculture (24-32 lack hectares)
(2) River valley projects (4.01 lakh hectares)
(3) Industrial uses (1.24 lakh hectares)
(4) Road construction (0.55 lakh hectares)
(5) Miscellaneous uses (3.88 lakh hectares)
In this way, a total of 3.4 million hectares of forests were lost during this period. The disastrous of the heavy deforestation are visible. Nearly 1 percent of the land surface of India is turning barren every year due to deforestation. In the Himalayan range, the rainfall has declined from 3 to 4 percent.
Mining
It is often remarked that in our country most mining work has been unscientific. Consequently, no heed is paid to environment protection. The consequences have been disastrous. For example:
(1) They have developed large tracts that lost productivity.
(2) There have been water and air pollution, despoliation of land and deforestation, noise and ground vibration problems etc.
As such, to ameliorate the situation, the mined areas to be reclaimed for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and recreation. During last 20-30 years, a number of mining operation have been started in the country. These operations affected forest and cultivated land areas. Such operations have been taken mainly in U.P., Bihar, M.P., Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The result are as under:
(1) The use of land scale for townships, communication, excavation and transport affected the socioeconomic and ecology of these areas
(1) The use of land scale for townships, communication, excavation and transport affected the socioeconomic and ecology of these areas
Some illustrations are as under:
(1) Ranch
In Ranchi several hundred sq. km. of land has been converted to bad lands
(2) Singrauli
In Singrauli complex forests and hillocks have been erased due to construction of high power transmission lines, roads and rail tracks. Establishment of other factories as cement and super thermal power stations around coal mines have resulted into environment degradation
Reclamation of Mined Areas
There are two successful cases of reclamation of mined areas in India. These are as under:
(1) Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. in Tamil Nadu.
(2) Stone Quarries of Sayaji Iron Works in Gujarat.
It is felt, there is need to have legal protection and to revise the Mines and Minerals (Regulations and Development) Act, 1957 (MMRD Act) to bring in it the environment concerns.
Dams
(i) Impacts within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir
(ii) Downstream effects caused by alternation in hydraulic regime, and
(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resources use and socioeconomic aspects
The impacts caused by construction of dams and reservoir in including the following effects and consequences:
(1) The various change in the microclimate
(2) The loss of vegetal cover.
(3) Soil erosion
(4) Variation in water table
(5) Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water
It should be kept in mind that the nature and magnitude of the impacts vary with the project locations and the conditions therein. It can be elucidate with the help of illustration:
(1) In hilly tracts, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage to the environment through the following activities
(a) Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides,
(b) Sedimentation of reservoirs
(c) Drying up of spring and flash floods
(2) The creation of new settlements for the workmen and rehabilitation of project outsees in the watershed areas may result in the aggravation of the seriousness of advance impacts. In our country a number of big, medium and minor dams are undertaken mainly for three purposes-irrigation, power generation and water supply. The country’s first Prime Minister, Jawharlal Nehru, hailed these dams as the Temples of Modern India. They have increased agricultural production, power generation and reduced dependence in imports.
However, on the contrary to the advantages enumerated above, some experts opine that the social, environmental and even economic cost of these dams, far outweighs their benefits. They hold that the most important social consequences of big dams has been the displacement of million of tribals from their homeland and their eventual influx into urban areas, almost as refugees. This is the reason why the scientists, environmentalists, journalists, social activists, lawyers and bureaucrats have now raised their voice against big dams.
Results of opposition
Mounting opposition from scientists and environmentalists has completed the Govt. to review a number of proposed dams in the light of their impact on local tribals, flora and fauna as under:
(i) First was the scrapping of the silent valley project in Kerala
(ii) Second example is Koel and Karo project in Bihar. This was also given up due to opposition from local people. They held that it would have displaced several thousands of Santhal tribals in the area.
Four Major Projects
(i) Sardar Sarovar Project, Gujrat
(ii) Narmada Sagar Project, M.P.
(iii) Bodh hat Project, M.P.
Although the above projects have been given environment clearance, struggle is still on the force of the Govt. to drop these projects. A brief description of these projects and their possible effects are as under
1. Sardar Sarovar (SS) Project
It is one of the costliest projects affecting villages in three states—M.P., Maharashtra and Gujrat. If it is carried out, its effects would be as under
(i) About 245 villages will be submerged, of which about 193 in M.P. alone
(ii) Over 75,000 (nearly 50,000 in M.P. alone) people will be evicted.
(iii) Additional displacements is likely to be caused during social and environment rehabilitation work undertaken to repair the dislocation and damages caused by the project
It is evident that compensatory afforestation and setting of wildlife sanctuary will displace or affect other villagers in the area. The relevancy is evident from the fact that it has been officially admitted that nearly 43,000 ha of land will be needed for rehabilitation of SS oustees
2. Narmada Valley Project (NVP)
It claims to be the world’s largest river valley project. It has attracted the greatest attention. The 30 big dams and over 3,000 medium and minor dams are envisaged at cost of Rs. 25,000 crore. Its effects are anticipated as under:
(i) It would displace over one million people, mostly tribals.
(ii) It would submerge 56,000 ha fertile agriculture land
(iii) Total forest areas nearly 60,000 ha. will be destroyed.
(iv) Nearly 25 species of birds will be deprived of their habitats
3. Bodh hat Project
This project is on Indravati river in M.P. The project is in heavily forested Bihar district. Its effects are anticipated as under:
(i) The project will destroy teak and sal forests.
(ii) It will spell doom for the last surviving wild buffaloes
The criticisms of the project forced the Govt. and the World Bank to reconsider it
4. Tehri Dam
This Dam is proposed on the Bhagirathi river in U.P. at the foothills of Himalayas. It is Soviet-financed and challenged in the Supreme Court. Its effects are envisaged as under:
(i) This Dam will displace over 85,000 people.
(ii) It will totally immerse the Tehri town and completely or partly submerge nearly 100 villages
(iii) The site of the Dam is prone to intense seismic activity.
(iv) The 3,200 million ton of water that the Dam would impound, could cause a major earth tempor.
(v) In the event of a disaster, the entire religious townships of Deoprayag, Hardwar and Rishikesh would be devastated.
(vi) Thousand of hectares of rich, agriculture land will be drowned.
WATER RESOURCES: USE AND OVER-UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic consumption
Significant of Water
The significant of water needs no elucidation. It is as under:
(1) It is revealed by the history of human civilization that water supply and civilization are most synonymous.
(2) Several cities and civilizations have disappeared due to water shortages originating from climatic changes.
(3) Millions of people all over the world, particularly in the developing countries, are losing their lives every year from water-borne disease.
(4) An understanding of water chemistry is the basis of knowledge of the multidimensional aspects of aquatic environment chemistry, which involve the sources, composition, reactions, and transport of the water
(5) About 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean, which is unfit of the remaining 3%, 2% is locked in the polar ice-caps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.
Unlike land, which remains available as it is, the availability of water varies from place to place and time to time. Our country is a monsoon land. The bulk of rainfall is confined to a brief period of 3-4 months that is from July to October. As such, large part of the country lacks surface water supply for a greater part of the year
Surface Flow
1. River
Surface flow takes place through 14 major river systems. They are Brahmani, Bhrahmaputra, Cauvery, Ganga, Godavari, Indus, Krishna, Mahanadi, Mahi, Narmada, Periyar, Sabarmati, Subarnarekha and Tapti. Between them, the position is as under:
(a) They share 83% of the drainage basin,
(b) They account for 85% of the surface flow
(c) They house 80% of the total population on the country.
Besides, there are 44 medium and 55 minor river system. These rivers are fast flowing, monsoon fed and originate in the coastal mountains of the major river viz Brahamputra, Ganga and Indus basins along with Godavri. They cover more than 50% of the country.Only 4, Brahamputra, Ganga,Mahanadi and Brahmani are perennial. Their minimum discharge is of 0.47 Mm3 /km3 year
2. Lakes and Ponds
Lakes: Lakes are inland depressions that contain standing water. They may vary in size from small ponds of fewer acres to large seas covering thousands of square miles. They may range in depth from a few feet to over 5,000 feet.
In a lake, there are three to five well recognized horizontal strata namely:
(i) Shallow water near the shore forms the littoral zone. It contains upper warm and oxygen rich circulating water layer zone. The littoral zone includes rooted vegetation.
(i) Shallow water near the shore forms the littoral zone. It contains upper warm and oxygen rich circulating water layer zone. The littoral zone includes rooted vegetation.
(iii) Limnetic zone is the open water zone away from the shore
(iv) Profundal zone is the deep-water area beneath limnetic zone and beyond the depth of effective light penetration.
(v) Abyassal zone is found only in deep lakes, since it being at about 2,000 metres from the surface
Pond: Ponds are considered as small bodies of standing water so shallow that rooted plants can grow over most of the bottom. Most ponds and lakes have outlet streams and both are more or less temporary features on the landscape the reason is filling, no matter how slow, is inevitable.
Stratification of Ponds
Ponds have little vertical stratification. In them littoral zone is large than and limnetic zone and profundal zone. In a small pond the limnetic profundal zones are not found. The warm top layer, the epilimnion is heated by the sun and homogenised by the wind and other currents. On the contrary to it, the deep cold layer, the hypolimnion is not heated by sun and not circulated by wind. The basis upon which the layers are maintained is strictly thermal and is caused by the fact that the warmer water is lighter than the colder water. After the formation of a thermocline, no exchange of water occurs between the epilimnion and hypolimnion
Physico-Chemical Properties of Lakes and Ponds
Lakes have the tendency to become thermally stratified during summer and winter to undergo definite seasonal periodicity in depth, distribution of heat and oxygen. Light also penetrates only to a certain depth, depending upon turbidity.
Kinds of Lakes
(1) Based on temperature
Hutchnson (1957) classified lakes into dimitic, monomictic and polemicist lake. There are as under:
(i) The dimictic lakes exhibit two overturns every year, while monomictic lakes present only a single overturn per year.
(ii) The monomictic lakes may be cold monomictic and monomicti
(2) Cold Monomictic
It is characterized by a circulation only during summer:
(i) Warm Monomictic: It has a circulation in winter as well
(ii) Polomictic lakes present circulation throughout the year
Based on the human acid content the lakes of world have been classified into clear water lakes and brown water lakes
(a) The brown water contains high humus content
(b) Clear water takes may be divided into two types as under:
(i) The oligotrophic type
Its water is poor in nutritive plant material and show nearly equal distribution of oxygen during summer and winter months. Its mud bottom contains little organic material;
(ii) The eutrophic type
It is rich in nutrients. At greater depth below the thermo cline in summer eutrophic lakes show a considerable reduction in oxygen content and their mud bottom is composed of typical muck.
3. Lotic Ecosystems or Moving Water
Moving water or lotic ecosystems include rivers, streams, and related environments. They are of various sizes ranging from Ganga, Yamuna, Hindon, Kali Nadi, Sutlez, Gomti, etc to the trickle of a small spring. Likewise, there is distinction on the basis of flow. On one hand there are raging torrents and waterfalls and on the other hand, the rivers whose flow is so smooth as to be almost unnoticeable. Every river varies considerably over its length, as it charges from a mountain brook to a large river
Main Characteristics of Lotic Environment: Moving water differ from lakes and ponds as under:
(i) Current is a controlling and limiting factor.
(ii) Land water interchange is great because of the small size and depth of moving water systems as compared with lakes.
(iii) Oxygen is almost always in abundant supply except when there is pollution
(iv) Temperature extremes tend to be greater than in standing water
(v) The most distinctive features of moving water ecosystems are those related to their motion i.e. the rate of flow and the streams velocity. The rate of flow refers to the volume of water passing a given observation point during a specific unit of time; It is measured in units such as m3 /sec, ft3 or acre-feet/sec.
(a) Rapidly flowing wate
Rapidly flowing water can be defined as the portion of the streams in which the flow is both rapid and turbulent. Consequently everything that is not attached or weighty is swept away by the current. This includes organisms and sediment particles alike. The substrate tends to be rock or gravel. The fragments are gradually rounded and smooth by the water
(b) Slowly flowing water
A slowly flowing water ecosystem is a very different type of system from the fast streams. The flow is both slower and more likely to be laminar. The results are that the erosive power of the stream is greatly reduced, hence, smaller sediment particles (sit) and decaying organic debris, are deposited on the bottom. Besides, the slow streams have higher temperature. Consequently, planktonic organisms, espeically protozoans, occur in large number in this ecosytem. In some moving streams, the bottom muds contain more organic material than mineral fragments. In slow water streams oxygen concentration is main limiting factor. The high level of animal activity, along with an active detritus stream. Besides, the low level of turbulence means that less oxygen is in corporate into the water at surface. Thus the dissolved oxygen content of a slowly moving stream is likely to be much lower than that of a fast-moving stream.
4. Estuaries
Water of all streams and rivers eventually drain into the sea. Estuaries is the place where this freshwater joins the salt water. As such estuaries are the transitional zones between the sea and rivers and are the sites of unique ecological properties. They are semienclosed coastal bodies of water that have a free connection with the open and within which seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater from river. However, all the rivers are not open into estuaries. Some rivers simply discharge their runoff into the ocean. Estuaries are not alike. Instead they differ in size, shape and volume of water flow, they are influenced by the geology of the region in which they occur. As the river reaches the encroaching sea, the stream carried sediments are dropped in the quiet water. These accumulate to form deltas in the upper reaches of the mouth and shorten the estuary.
The Position of Surface Water in the Country
Storages
India has constructed a large number of storages and diversions for harness its vast ware potential
(1) Live storages built-up in the completed projects so far is about 163 km3
(2) Another 7 km3 of live storage will be available from project under construction
(3) 131 km3 from projects under consideration.
(4) In addition, there is a large number of small tanks whose storage adds upto about 30 km3 .
Total Hydro-Power Potential of the Country has been assessed at 84,000 mW at 60 per cent load factor. Presently, Completed and on-going Schemes will exploit about 15,600 mW i.e. 20 per cent of the assesses potential. Hydropower installed capacity at the end of the Sixth Plan was 14, 450 mW. Forming about 34 per cent of the total installed capacity.
In the absence of information on actual water use by various sectors, estimates made in this regard (1985) indicated that water use may be of the order of 530 km3 is from surface Water and 180 km3 from Ground Water. Out of this, 470 km3 is for Irrigation and 70 km3 for other including Domestic (16.7 km3 ), Industrial (10 km3 ) and Thermal Plants (2.7 km3 ) requirements. A recent assessment puts domestic requirements in 1991 at about 26 km3 .
Basin-wise Water Resources Development for 12 Major River Basins is given in the following table:
The surface water resources continue to the contaminated with run-off water from agricultural fields, containing pesticides, fertilisers, soil particles, waste chemicals from industrial and sewage from cities and rural areas
During the dry months, water scarcity is faced even in the places like Cherrapunji and Konkan, which receive heavy rainfall. Due to the unequal distribution of rainfall our countrymen face problems of flood and famine in some parts every year
The mass balance of annual rainfall that about 70% is lost by direct evaporation and transpiration by plants, while the remaining 30% goes into the streamflow shows it. The approximate breakup of this streamflow, as consumed by man, is 18% for irrigation, 2% for domestic use, 4% for industrial and 12% for electrical utilities. Irrigation for agricultural purposes and electric power plants are the major consumer of water.
Growth Water
Ground water resources are abundant only in the northern and coastal plains. In other parts its supply is not adequate. Ground water is roughly 210 million m3 . This quantity includes recharge through infiltration, seepage and evaporisation. Even at present, our country has not been able to provide safe drinking water to all villages and towns.
Ground water contains dissolved minerals from the soil layers through which it passes. In the process of seepage through the ground, the water gets depleted of most of the microorganism originally present in the surface water. Though the salt content may be excessively high on occasions, it is generally superior as a domestic water source. Surface water contains a lot of organic matter and mineral nutrients, which feed algae and large bacteria populations
The total replenishable Ground Water Resources in the Country have been provisionally estimated at 45.23 million hectares meters per year. Of this, 6.93 million hectares metres is for drinking, industrial and other uses leaving 38.34 million hectares metres as utilisable Ground Water Resources for Irrigation.
Basin-wise/State-wise break-up of the potential is given in the Table 2 (next page).
Over-utilization of Water
It transpires from our water budget that, in case average annual rainfall of entire country and its total area are taken, the total water resources are of the order of 167 million hectare meters. In fact, only 66 million-hectare meters of water can be utilised by us for irrigation. As there are some financial and technological constraints we plant to use it fully only by 2010 A.D. By 1951 only 9.7 million ha metre water was used for irrigation. By 1973 it was as much as 18.4 million ha metres
It is observed that Agriculture sector is the major user of water. The water used for irrigation which was two decades back nearly 40% has gone up to 73% by 2000 A.D. Irrigation use is very inefficient. Hence, 25-30% efficiency and method of irrigation are to be changed drastically. From the data on water use shown in the table given as under, it becomes evident that irrigation including for livestock and including power use is 79.6% and 13.7% water respectively. Thereafter, come domestic (3.5%) and industrial (3.3%) uses.
In case the land area is taken up as a unit, the position could be different. By 1984- 85 the land under irrigation almost tripled to 67.5 million ha.
After a period of five years i.e. by 1990 another 13 million ha were to be brought under irrigation, thus, the total figure was 80 million ha. This may be adjudged against the total potential of 133 million ha by 2010 A.D. Here it may be kept in mind that it is the gross sown area and not net sown area. The former i.e. net sown area at present, more than 3% of the net sown area is under irrigation
It is estimated by World Health Organization (WHO) that water thirsty countries are across the oceans. Nordic water supply (Norwegian company) has been transporting fresh water i.e. clean drinking water in giant floating bags across the oceans. These floating bags are made long. Each contains 35,000 tonnes of water. The floating water bags are made of a polyester plant to build new bags of the size of supertanker, 300 metres long and a capacity of 1,00,000 tons water. In this way the Nordic company is engaged in the business of towing fresh water from Turkey to Greek island. Its future plans include transporting water from Iran to Saudi Arabia and along Caribbean and Red Sea
Water Supply
In our country water supply is scanty. We have more than 3000 towns, but hardly 2000 have an organized water supply. It is essential to augment coverage of water supply in urban as well as rural sectors. At present the position of water supply is as under:
(1) Low daily per capita supply
(2) Inefficient distribution,
(3) High leakage and ill managed system
This is the position in towns. In rural sector progress in water supply has been very slow. There are about six lakh villages involved in which our 76% population lives.
Previously they were provided safe drinking water through piped water supply systems or hand pumps operated tube wells. Efforts are on and it is an expected picture that supply could be brought to about more than one lakh villages. The picture is somewhat improved during the Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (WSSD) (1981-90)
To solve the water problem, some other precautionary measures are to be taken. We have to use minimum water. The quantity of water returning after use becomes the waste water. The data for water use in our country show that waste that by 2000 A.D. out of 1900 Mm3 of water available, the country had used about more than 50% of the available water (about 1092 Mm3 ) for four major consumptive uses-irrigation, power generation, domestic and industrial uses.
It is held that for sustainability at least more than half of the total available water should be used annually. The country has overshot the 50% mark by 2000 A.D. which is not in our ecological interest.
Water Resources Management
Some of the central and corresponding state originations concerned with specific aspects of water resources management are as under:
MEASUREMENT TO CHECK OVER-UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES
In our country the Ministry of Water Resources is entrusted with the function of laying down policies and programmes for development and regulation of the country’s water resources. Under its jurisdiction come the following:
(1) Sartorial planning
(2) Co-ordination,
(3) Policy guidelines,
(4) Technical examination and tech-economic appraisal of projects
(5) Providing central assistance to specific project
(6) Facilitation of external assistance and assistance in the resolution of interstate water disputes
(7) Policy formulation, planning and guidance in respect of minor irrigation
(8) Command area development
(9) Development of ground water resources etc
Evidently, its jurisdiction is quite wide. It was in September 1987 that the National Water Resources council adopted the National Water Policy. The council laid stress on the truth that ‘Water’ is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. As such, its over consumption and wastage should be discontinued at every cost. It held that planning and development of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.
Since 1987, a great number of issues and challenges have emerged in the development and management of the water resources sector. As such, it was felt necessary to review the National Water Policy. The same was done and the (Revised) National Water Policy was adopted by the National Water Resources Council in its fifth meeting held on 1 April 2002 at New Delhi. All the states besides the centre are required to adopt immediate measures in order to achieve the desired objectives of the policy, each state has to formulate its own State Water Policy, backed with an operational action plan in a time-bound manner, the period so stipulated is a period of two years
Assessment of Water Resources
Irrigation Development
India has a culturable area of 1850 lakh hectares of which 1410 lakh ha. is sown area. Sustained and Systematic Programme for Development of Irrigation Facilities in the Country was taken up with the advent of Planned Development in 1951. The Irrigation potential creation during the Pre-Plan Period was 226 lakh ha. of which 97 lakh ha. were from Major and Medium Irrigation and 129 lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The cumulative irrigation potential increased to about 675 lakh ha. by the end of 1984-85. Of this 300 lakh ha. were from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects and 375 lakh ha. form Minor Irrigation Schemes. The target of additional potential during the Seventh Plan was 129 lakh ha. of which 43 lakh ha. was from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects and 86 lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The Approval Outlay for the Seventh Plan was about Rs. 14,360 crore for Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation Programmes and about Rs. 1,671 crore for the Command Area Development Programme.
The additional irrigation potential achieved during 1985-90 in regard to Major and Medium Irrigation was 30 lakh ha and 84.4 lakh ha. Minor Irrigation Schemes. The main thrust of the Development Policy for the Irrigation Sector is toward achieving the assessed target of 1,130 lakh ha. of gross irrigation potential; in the country based on convention methods of diversion and storages by 2010 AD. or so. are expected to be irrigation eventually from Major and Medium Projects and the balance by Minor Schemes.
Plan wide Development
In every plan/five year efforts were made to create and utilize potential and ground water/resources of the country
Common Area Development Programme
The Centrally-Sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was launched at the beginning of Fifth Plan (1974-75) with the special objective of ensuring a faster and better utilization of irrigation potential in selected Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in the Country. Its main objective were as under:
(1) To improve the utilization irrigation potential.
(2) To optimise agriculture production and productivity from irrigation lands on a sustainable basis.
(3) To integrate all functions related with irrigated agriculture through a multidisciplinary team under an area development authority
Programme broadly covers on-farm development works which include construction of Field Channels, field drains, land-leveling and shaping wherever necessary, farm roads, consolidation of holdings and realignment of boundaries, Introduction of Warabandi or rotational supply of water and Setting-up off WFH wireless network for better communication in order to ensure equitable and assured supply of irrigation even to the tail end holdings, arrangement for supply in inputs and credit, agriculture extension, construction of markets and godowns, and development of ground water for conjunctive use. The programme covering 152 selected major and medium irrigation projects in 20 states and two union territories with total cultural command area of a little over 200 lakh ha. is being executed through the various command area development authorities.
During the seventh plan, more emphasis was laid on improving water management and water delivery system, adaptive trials, training of field-level staff and farmer, monitoring and evaluation of the programme and involvement of farmers in water management
Financing of C.A.D. programme is from three sources, namely central assistance to states on matching basis for certain selected items, state government’s own sources and institutional credit for works, land development, marketing and storage.
From 1986-87, the financing pattern has been revised, according to which construction of field Channels from outlets for five to eight ha. Blocks is being financed on matching grant, 50 per cent to be borne by the centre and the remaining by states. In the seventh plan, allocation for CAD programme was Rs. 500 crore in the central sector against which an expenditure of Rs. 497 crore was incurred.
Major and Medium Irrigation Projects
The irrigation projects with a Culturable Command Area ( CCA) of more than 10,000 ha. are classified as major projects and project with a CCA of more than 2, 000 ha. and upto 10,000 ha, are categories as medium projects.
Between 1951 and 1985, 246 Major and 1,059 medium project were taken up for execution. Among them, 65 Major and 626 Medium Projects were completed by 1985. During the seventh plan, 18 new medium project were taken up. Out of the 199 major and 462 medium projects in hand, 37 major and 185 medium projects are expected to have been completed during the seventh plan period.
In 1974, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were begun, with a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about 15 mha. Later on, a number of projects were included while a few were deleted. At present, the number of programmes with CCA of 22.78 mha. The projects are spread over 28 States and two Union Territories. The great concern is reflected from the fact that since inception, and amount of Rs. 2,452.33 crore has been spent for different activities of the programme. An amount of Rs. 148.27 crore has been spent during 2001-2002
Minor Irrigation Scheme
Ground water development, which constitutes bulk of the Minor Irrigation Programma, is essentially a People’s Programma implemented primary through individual and co-operative efforts with finance obtained mainly from institutional sources. To encourage use of water saving devices such as Sprinklers, Drip Systens, Hydra's, Water Turbines and Hand Pumps, the Government subsidies are made available to Small and Marginal Farmers for their purchase.
Minor Irrigation Schemes provide instant and reliable source of irrigation to cultivators. It also provides critical help in improving the status of irrigation and controlling waterlogging and Salinistion in Canal Command, Minor Irrigation Surface Water Projects, which are financed through plan Funds, often chronically drought-affected areas. Initial investment on these schemes is comparatively low and they can be completed quickly. Moreover, these schemes are labour-intensive and offer employment to the rural people.
REGULATION OF GROUND WATER UTILIZATION AND RESTRICTING ITS OVERUTILIZATION
Water is vital for realizing full potential of agriculture sector and Country’s Development. Optimum development and efficient utilization of our water resources, therefore, assumes great significance
The erstwhile Department of Irrigation was redesignated as Ministry of Water Resources in October 1985, and assigned the nodal role for development, conservation and management of water as a National Resource. Water being the most crucial element, National Water Policy was adopted in September 1987. The policy recommends need for integrated and multi-disciplinary approach to planning, formation and implementation of projects. It also lays down priority areas for planning and operation of systems. Highest -priority has been assigned to drinking water followed by irrigation, Hydropower, navigation, industrial and other users. The Policy further recommends that the quality of Surface and Ground Water should be monitored
In Flood Management Sector, the need for having a ‘Master Plan’ for Flood Control and Management for each Flood Prone- basin through sound Watershed Management was recognised in the policy and establishment of extensive network for flood forecasting recommended. The policy further recommended the erosion of land by sea or river be minimised by suitable cost-effective measures. Therefore, planning and management of this resource and its optimal, economical and equitable use with application of Science and Technology has become a matter of utmost urgency.
The Central Ground Water Authority
The Central Ground Water Authority was set up in 14th January 1997 under the Environment protection Act, 1986. It is vested with the responsibility of making an assessment of the groundwater potential of the country through hydrological surveys, exploration, evaluation and monitoring of ground water regime.
Present Position of Ground Water
The total replenishable groundwater in India is estimated to be about 43.39 millionhectare metres per year (about 43.86 billion cubic metres). Out of it, about 7.13-mha m/yr of groundwater is reserved for domestic and industrial uses and 36.26-m.h.a m/yr is available for irrigation. According to an estimate, there has been a development of 37.24 per cent of available groundwater resources
It is a sad affair that out of 5,711 block/talukas/mandals/watersheds in the country, 310 block/talukas/mandals/watershed are categoriesed as “over-exploited”. Over exploited indicates the stage of groundwater development which exceeds the annual replenishable recharge. Besides, 160 blocks/talukas/mandals/watersheds are found and classified ‘Dark’ i.e. the stage of ground water development is more than 85 per cent.
Various Steps
Various steps in the direction of regulation and control of the development and management of ground water resources in the country are taken as under:
(1) National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan
The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan was constituted in September 1999. The commission submitted its report to the union Government in December 1999. The report is quite exhaustive and valuable. Several recommendations are made. These are mainly for development of water resources for drinking, irrigation, industrial, flood control, transfer of surplus water to deficit area etc.
(2) Central Water Commission
The Central Water Commission (CWC) New Delhi, is the National Apex Organization in Water Resources Development charged with the responsibility of initiating, co-ordinating and furthering in consolation with state government concerned, schemes for control, conservation and utilizations of water resources for irrigation, flood control, Hydro-power Generation and navigation through the Country. With its rich expertise built over the last four decades, CWC has developed considerable technological know-how in planning, investigation, design, project appraisal and management of Water Resources Development. It is sharing its knowledge and expertise with the Developing Countries. The commission’s work are divided into four functional wings viz Water Planning, Design and Research, River Management and Planning and Progress supported by Administration and Co-ordinate Wing
The commission has set-up a National of 570 Hydrological Observation Stations. Since most of the Stations were set-up during 1960’s and early 1970’s Data Records are now available for nearly two decades. Besides, Guage and Discharge Observation and Sediment Flow Measurements are carried out in selected 248 Stations and Water Quality observation in stations are in operation in the Ganga Basin over the Past Two Decades. During 1978- 85, Water Quality Monitoring with respect to Population Loads, was conducted at 42 Selected Stations on the Ganga under a ‘Special Scheme’ and a Status Report’ on water quality of the Ganga System was published in Auguest, 1987. Although the ‘Special Scheme’ was closed, Water Quality Monitoring in the Ganga System was continued and the ‘Status Report’ on the water quality of Ganga System published in 1987 is being up-dated
(3) Central Soil And Material Research Station
The Central Soil and Material Research Station, New Delhi, is a premier organization which deals with Geo-mechanics and construction of material problems relevant River Valley Project Construction. It plays an active role in imparting knowledge to Engineers involved in the construction, designs etc. by holding nation level workshops with the help of the United Nations Development Programmer Experts.
(4) Subordinate Organizations
(1) Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune.
(2) Central Ground Water Board.
(4) Ganga Flood Control Commission, Patna.
(6) Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee, Vadodara
The Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune, is devoted to applied and fundamental research in energy resources and water-borne transport, Research activities for the stations are carried-out in Ten Laboratories. since 1979, it is the Reorganized Regional Laboratory if the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific for studies related to Inland Waterways and Water-borne Transport. Its clientele is drawn from Arab Countries, Africa and South-East Asia
(6) Central Ground Water Board
The Central Ground Water Board, New Delhi, is the National Apex Organization to carry-out and guide scientific development and management of Ground Water Resources from the National Perspective. It handles all waters relating to Hydro-Geological Surveys, exploration, assessment, development and scientific management of the country’s Ground Water Resources. The main activities of the organization include Macro- level Hydro-Geological Surveys and Investigations, Deep-Exploratory Drilling Coupled with Geo-physical Logging and Pump-Tests to study Hydro-Geological Features and National-wise Monitoring of Ground Water Regime and its quality through a network of Hydrograph Stations. Data generated from investigations undertaken by the board provides a scientific base for preparation of Hydro-geological Maps, Atlases, delineation of Ground Water Worthy Areas and Formulation of Ground Water Development Schemes. Beside advising the state governments on planning, financing and administration of Ground Water Development Schemes, the board undertakes, ‘Water Balance Studies’ and organizes training of personal of all levels and disciplines of its own and other state and Central Government Organisation including nominees of International Organisations
The board has completed an area of 29.89-lakh sq. upto the end of March 1990, out of the total area of 32.9 lakh sq k.m. of the Country under Hydro-geological Surveys and planned to complete the remaining by 1991. For the monitoring of Ground Water Regime, the board established a National Network of 12, 450 Hydrographs Stations. Ground water levels are being monitored by these stations quarterly in January, April/May, August and November. Data is analysed to study impact of various input and output components on Ground Water Regime. The board is presently having a fleet of 92 different kinds of Drilling Rigs for Ground Water Exploration.
The board, through its, ‘Specialises Cells’ has initialed studies in the Field of Mathematic Modelling, Data Storage and Retrieval and Ground Water Pollution.
It has also provided assistance to the National Drinking Water Mission for locating sites for drinking water and to suggest suitable and economic structures to tap Ground Water for Drinking Purpose in the Rural Areas
RIVERS IN INDIA
Rivers in our Country may be classified as:
(i) Himalayan Rivers,
(ii) Peninsular Rivers
(iii) Coastal Rivers,
(iv) Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin
(i) Himalayan Rivers
The Himalayan Rivers are perennial as they are generally snow-fed and have reasonable flow throughout the year. During the monsoon, the Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and the rivers discharge the maximum quantity of water causing frequent floods.
(ii) Peninsular Rivers
The Peninsular Rivers are generally rain-fed and therefore, fluctuate in volume.
(iii) Coastal Rivers
A large number of the streams are Non-Perennial. The coastal streams, especially on the West Coast are short in length and have limited Catchment Areas. Most of them are flashy and non-perennial.
(iv) Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin
The streams of the Inland Drainage Basin, is the largest in India receiving waters from an area which comprises about one-quarter of the total area of the Country. Its boundaries are well defined by the Himalayas in the North and the Vindhyas in the South. The Ganga flows through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal in India and enters Bangladesh thereafter. It has Two Main Headwaters in the Himalayas: the Bhagirathi and the Alkananda, the former rising from the Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh and the latter from a Glacier short of the Alkapuri Glacier. The Ganga is joined by a number of Himalayas Rivers including the Yamuna, Ghaghra, Gomti, Gandak and Kosi. The Western-most River of the Ganga System is the Yamuna, which rises from the Gangotri Glacier and joins the Ganga at Allahabad. Among the important rivers flowing North from Central India into the Yamuna and the Ganga and the Ganga are the Chambal, Betwa and Sone
Test Brahmaputra
The Brahmaputra and the Barak Rivers flowing from East to West in North-eastern Region are International Rivers and have immense Water Resources Potential, which is still in the initial stages of development.
The Godavari
The Godavari River in the Southern Peninsula has the Second-Largest River Basin covering 10 percent of the area of India. Next to it is the Krishna Basin in the region while the Mahanadi has the third-largest basin. The Basins of the Narmada in the uplands of the Deccan flowing to the Arabian Sea and of the Kaveri in South falling into the Bay of Bengal are about the same though with different character and shape
The Tapti and the Penner
Two other River Systems, which are small but agriculturally important, are those of the Tapti in North and the Penner in the South. These West-Coast Rivers are of great importance as they contain as much as 14 per cent of the Country’s Water Resources while draining only 12 per cent of the land area
RURAL WATER SUPPLY PROGRAMME
India implements the Largest Government Sponsored Rural Water Supply Programme in the World. Although supply of drinking water is primarily the responsibility of stage governments, the Union Government supports the programme with fully centrally sponsored Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)
NDWM
In order to provide further managerial, technical and financial support to the programme, National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) was launched in 1986. All the programmes were coordinated under the umbrella of NDWM to achieve the goal of International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (IDWSSD) by providing 100 per cent coverage for rural villages by March 1990.
NDWM had a clear goal of covering residual problem villages (1.62 lakh at the begining of the seventh plan) by 1990. In order to achieve the same, it provided low-cost appropriate technological solution to identify problems associated with supply of safe drinking water through the application of scientific and technological inputs. Nearly 85 per cent of the programme is to provide spot sources through Level Operation and Maintenance (LOM) pump called India mark II is presently being exported to nearly 40 countries World over
Mini-mission Areas
Some 55 pilot Project called mini-mission areas covering various status and union territories and Five Submission were taken up during the seventh plan. A problem village has been defined as one with no source of safe drinking water within a distance of 1.6. or within a depth of 15 metres. One problem villagers face are those where available water has excessive salinity, iron, fluoride or other toxic elements or where diseases like cholera, guinea worm, etc are endemic.
After covering problem villagers identified in the Sixth and Seventh Plan, water supply facilities were proposed to be extended to villagers as per liberalized norms i.e. within a distance of 0.5 km. and enhancing present norm of water supply from 40 litres to 70 litres per capita per day and provide one source (tubewell with hand-pumps or stand-post) for a population of 150 against the existing norm of 250-300 persons. Priority was being accorded for coverage of SC/ST habitations and water supply for the economically and socially background areas
States were advised to allocate atleast 25 per cent of ARWSP funds for the Schedule Castes and another ten per cent of Schedule Tribes. At the commencement of the seventh plan, 161, 722 problem villages remained to be covered with safe drinking water facilities. The mission had been successful in covering 1,53,390 problem villages in the Seventh Plan. Remaining 8,332 villages which had spilled over to the Eight Plan were to be covered in the first two years of the Eight Plan i.e. by 1992.
Against the Seventh Plan outlay for Central Assistance to States/UTs under ARWSP and Technology Mission Schemes for Rs. 1207 crore, Rs. 1906 crore had actually been released and utilised and Rs. 423 crore had been provided in 1990-91 for ARWSP/MiniMission and submission and national drinking water mission and Rs. 6.43 crore under State Sector MNP.
Through NDWM, science and technology inputs had been harnessed in a big wat including Remote-sensing and satellite imagery, geographical, investigations, etc. to effect scientific source finding. Steps were also initiated to investigation of water purification from laboratories to commercial production and then on to field for removing salinity, excess iron and excess fluoride.
Looking at the success of India’s Performance in the rural drinking water supply, for the first time a flobal consulatation national development programme and the Government of India between 10-14 September, 1990 where 125 countries and various multi-lateral and bilateral agencies were represented through 600 delegates. The challenge set up for the next decade is “Some for all, rather than more for some”.
The New Delhi Global Consultation
The New Delhi global consultation recommended four guiding principles which are
(i) Protection of the environment and safeguarding of health through the integrated management of water resources and liquid and solid waters.
(ii) Institutional reforms promoting, attitudes and behaviour, and the full participation of women and all levels in sector institutions.
(iii) Community management of services, backed by measures to strengthen local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and sanitation programmes
(iv) Sound financial practices, achieved through better management of existing assests and widespread use of appropriate technologies
FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Floods are annual features in one part of the Country or the other causing damage to the crops and property, destruction of communication and at times heavy loss of human-life and livestock.
National Flood Control Programm
After heavy floods in 1954, the Government of India announced a National Flood Management Programme. The programme was divided into these phases immediate, shortterm and long-term:
(i) The immediate phase was adopted for intensive collection of data and execution of emerge flood protection measures
(ii) The short-term measures for flood protection include construction of Spurs and embankments of select sites.
(iii) The construction of storages, reservoirs on rivers/tributaries and additional embankments were the main long-term measure adopted. Out of the total geographical area of 329 million ha of the country, area prone to floods and area which can be provided reasonable degree of protection as assesses by R.B.A. are 40 million ha. and 32 million ha. respectively.
Even after the implementation of short and long-term measures, providing a certain degree of protection against floods to the flood prone areas, the flood loss continued to show increasing trend. More realistic and relational approach for flood management under the existing resources contains would be to strive for a reasonable degree of protection against floods by structural measures and supplement it by resorting to non-structural measures.
MEASURES AND ACHIEVEMENTS
(1) Since the launching of the National Flood Control Programme, an expenditure of about Rs. 2710 crore have been incurred on the Flood Control Sector till the end of the Seventh Plan. In the Seventh Plan, an Approval Outlay of Rs. 947.39 crore has a share of Rs. 797.43 crore by States and Union Territories and Rs. 149.93 crore by the Centre
(2) Since 1954 nearly 15,467 km of new embankments, 30,199 km of drainage channels, 765 town-protection works and raising the level of about 4,705 villages have been completed upto March, 1989. These achievements have been executed at a expenditure of Rs. 2493.56 crore and have benefitted 13.64 million ha. In addition, Anti-sea Erosion Measures to protect coast-line especially in Kerala were taken up. Out of the 320 km of vulnerable coast-line 311 km have been protected upto March, 1990.
(3) Upto 42 km existing sea walls have been strengthened. Rs. three point five crore have been allocated as Central Loan Assistance to Kerala during 1990-91. In Karnataka, 73.3 km of the coast-line, out of 280 km is vulnerable to sea erosion and 12.89 km of coast-line been protected upto March 1990.
(4) A number of reservoir projects had been completed which have helped in mitigating flood-peak in the down-stream reaches. Notable among these are Hirakud Dam on the Sutlej, Pong Dam on the Beas and Ukai Dam on the Tapti. All these works have afforded a reasonable degree of protection
(5) The Country on the whole experienced good and well-distributed rains. Rainfall was normal and well-distributed in 32 out of 35 Metrological Sub-divisions of the Country and 84 per cent of the Districts recorded excess of normal rainfall. The rain was deficient in Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep and Kerala meteorological sub-divisions. Heavy rains/flash floods in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Kerala characterized the over-all flood situation. Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal also experienced moderate to highintensity floods. It is reported that an area of 4.9 million ha, have been affected by floods during 1990 monsoon season and a population of 16.2 million were affected and crops worth Rs. 28.1 crore in an area of about 2.8 million reported to have been damaged. In all, nearly 882 human-lives and damages to the crops, houses and public utilities were reported to be the tune of Rs. 41.25 crore.
Forecasting
Flood Forecasting Activities have been vastly extended and expanded over the years since 1959 by covering almost all major inter-state river basins. Currently, the flood forecasting network compromising 157 flood forecasting stations covers 72 river basins. These sites were operational during 1990-flood season. The flood forecasting network is also supported by 500 meteorological stations, which collect and transmit data through 400 wireless stations to various control rooms for processing and issue forecasting
During the flood season 1990, the number of Flood Forecast issued having benefitted the state and UTs was about 3,500. About 95 per cent of these forecasts were within perimissible range of accuracy. With great thrust being accorded to flood forecasting aspect under the eighth plan period, the number of flood forecasting stations were likely to increase to about 200 by the end of the eight plan period and to about 300 by the end of the century.
Thrust Area During the Eighth Plan Period
The working group on flood management in its report for the eighth plan (1990-95) laid stress on non-structural measures viz. flood forecasting and farning, flood plan zoning, flood froofing and disaster perparedness. Substantially, increased outlays for these activities had been recommended by the working group which are as follows:
(a) Flood forecasting Rs. 44.30 crore,
(b) Flood plan Zoning Rs. 32 crore and
(c) Flood proofing Rs. 440 crore
The following projections have been considered in the flood management sector:
(i) The Government of India reaches a memorandum of understanding with the Nepalese-Government in March 1988. Under the agreement it was proposed to setup 45 hydrological and hydrometerological stations in Nepal for issuing flood forecasts for Nepal and India. The joint reconnaissance teams identified 15 of these sites and the required equipment for these stations were procured and transferred to the Nepalese Government. Reconnaissance survey for seven more stations was also done during May 1990.
(ii) The work of extension of flood forecasting network in the Brahmanputra and the Barak River Basins was given priority and include in the Action Plan of the Ministry of Water Resources Survey for seven more stations would be operational during 1991 flood season
(iii) Real time data acquisition and In flow forecasting system using latest metero burust communication system for Krishna, Mahanadi and Chambal basin under the Dam Safety and Rehabilitation Programme was prepared and discussed with the World Bank.
(iv) Under a French Collaboration Progrmme, the River Baitarni was also proposed to be modernised for data acquisition as well as forecasting in the country.
Ganga Flood Control Commission
Ganga Flood Control Commission, Patna, established in April 1972, is primarily concerned with the preparation of a comprehensive plan for flood control in the Ganga basin and arranging its implementation in coordinated manner through the states in the basin. The commission, Anti-Water-Logging-Erosion and Anti-Erosion Schemes estimated to cost Rs. lakh each or more in the Basin
DROUGHT PRONE AREAS PROGRAMME
The Drought-Prone Areas Programme was initiated as an Integrated Area Development Programme in 1973. The programme was conceived as a long-term measure for restoration of ecological balance and optimum utilisation of land, water, livestock and human resources to mitigate the effects of ‘The drought in and ‘The drought prone areas’. The programme has three basic objectives:
(i) To conserve, develop and harness land and other natural resources including rainfall with a view to improving and restoring ecological balance,
(ii) To minimise adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock production through integrated development of land, water resources, and adoption of appropriate technology,
(iii) To ultimately achieve drought proofing of the project area through integrating and dovetailing activities under this programme with State Sectoral Plans and Special Programmes. The programme is under implementation in 615 block of 91 district in thirteen states. Present coverage of the programme is based on the recommendations of the ‘Task Force on DPAP and DDP (1982)’ as modified by the Inter Departmental Group (1984). Total area covered under the programme is about 5.54 lakh sq. km and the total population in the areas covered by the programme is about 775 lakh. The funds for the programme are shared by the Central Government and the states concerned on a 50:50 basis. An Outlay of Rs. 237 crore was provided for the programme in the Central Plan for the Seventh Plan Period.
Desert Development Programme
The objectives of this programme include controlling the process of desertification mitigate the effects of drought in desert areas, restoration of ecological balance in affected areas and raising productivity of land, water, livestock and human resources in these areas
The objectives are sought to be achieved through activities such as a forestation with special emphasis on sand dune stablisation, shelterbelt plantation and grassland development, soil and moisture conservation and water resources development. The programme covers 131 blocks of 21 districts in five states. It also covers cold areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The area covered under this programme is about 3.62-lakh sq. km and the population area covered is about 150 lakh. This programme is implemented with 100 percent Central Financial Assistance. In 1989-90, allocations were made at the rate of Rs. 24 lakhs per 1000 sq. km., the ceiling per district hence will be Rs. 500 lakh. For cold desert areas, a lumpsum provision is made, the rate being Rs. 100 lakh per district per year for Himachal Pradesh and Rs. 150 lakh district per year for Jammu and Kashmir
INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES
The water wealth of India is enormous. The National Water Policy of 1987 recognizes River Basin as a unit for the purpose of harnessing the water potential.
Reasons for Differences
Major River Basin of the Country are all almost Inter-state. With so many rivers flowing through more than one state, it is a natural phenomenon that differences would arise sometime or other amongst concerned states with regard to use and distribution of control of water of such rivers. This is especially so in view of the rapid pace of water resources development to meet the increasing demand for irrigation, Hydel-Power Generation, domestic and industrial water supply etc.
Effort to Resolve Disputes
Efforts are made, as far as possible, to resolve all disputes by negotiations amongst states concerned or with the assistance of the Centre. Adjudication through Tribunal is resorted to when warranted. Several of Inter-State Water Dispute have been resolved in the recent past.
1. Some of these are agreements regarding construction of Thein Dam (Ravi), Barakar, Ajoy, Mayurakshi, Mahanada, Subernrekha and Kanhar Rivers, some common rivers between Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and some between Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh.
2. Sharing of river waters of the Krishna, the Godavari and Narmada by concerned Basin States has been settled through respective Tribunals set-up by the Government under the Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956.
3. The Ravi and Beas Waters Tribunal, which was set-up on second April 1986, submitted its report to the Central Government on 30 January 1987
4. In August, 1987 a further reference was made to the Tribunal comprising a Suomoto Reference by the Central Government and reference received from Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan Government’s seeking explanation/guidance on certain points in the report
5. Two major inter-state river dispute have not yet been resolved. They relate to utilisation of the waters of the Kaveri and the Yamuna.
6. The Kaveri Water Dispute had to be referred to a tribunal are still continuing. Keeping in view the response of the party states concerned, it should be possible to find solution to the Yamuna Water Dispute without recourse to a tribunal.
BARDS AND COMMITTEES
Necessary Boards and Committees are formed to resolve the disputes, if any arise among the states on the water distribution and allied issues. Some are as under:
(1) Bansagar Control Baord
In pursuance of an inter-state agreement among Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Bansagar Control Board was constituted in January, 1976 with headquarters at Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, by the Ministry of Water Resources for efficient, economical and early execution of Bansagar Dam and connected works on the Sone River (excluding Canal and Power Systems which will be carried-out by the respective states).
(2) Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee
The Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee, Vadodara in Gujrat, was set-up in accordance with the direction of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal for scrutinising estimates, technical features, designs of Units I and III (Dam and Power Portion) and Annual Works Programmes of the Project in Gujrat, which is an Inter-State Project benefiting Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The Dam and Power House Complex was completed by 1998. The project was expected to irrigation about 18 lakh hectares in Gujrat and provide 1450 mw Hydro-Power for peaking
(3) Statutory Bodies
Four Statutory Bodies are functioning under the Ministry of Water Resources. These are: Narmada Control Authority, Brahamputra Board, Betwa River Board and the Tungabhadra Board. A brief description of these bodies is as under:
(a) Narmada Control Authority
The Narmada Control Authority was set-up in pursuance of the decision of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal. It started functioning from December, 1980 and was further strengthened during 1987 and 1990. The authority coordinates and directs Narmada Basin Development Project and takes such measures as are necessary or expedient for protection of environment and also prepares Schemes for the Welfare and Rehabilitation of Oustees and Other Affected Persons
(b) Brahmaputra Board
The Government constituted the Brahmaputra Board under the Brahmaputra Act, 1980, with the specific object of preparing a ‘Master Plan’ for the control of Flood and Bank Erosion and Improvement of Drainage of the Brahmaputra Valley. Jurisdiction of the Board includes the Barak Valley.
(c) Betwa River Board
The Rajghat Dam Project on the Betwa, a Tributary of the Yamuna, is an Inter-State Project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In accordance with the inter-state agreement between the two states in 1973, Betwa River Board was constituted under the Betwa River Board Act, 1976 for early executions of Rajghat Dam Project.
(d) Tungabhadra Board
The Tungabhadra Board is incharge of the common portions of the Tungabhadra Project. The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal had made specific provision in the award for the use of Tungabhadra Waters by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The responsibility for carrying out this specific provision relating to the use of Tungbhadra Water has been entrusted to the Tungabhadra Board by the Tribunal. The board is also regulating the water for irrigation, Hydro-Power Generation and other uses of the Right Bank
IRRIGATION AGREEMENTS
(1) Indus Water Treaty
India and Pakistan signed the Indus Water Treaty on 19 September, 1960, fixing and delimiting the rights and obligations of the Two Countries with regards to the use of the waters of the Indus River System. It came into force from first April, 1960. A Permanent Indus Commission representing both the Governments have established co-operation arrangements for implementation of the treaty.
(2) Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission
The Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission was set-up in July 1972 to perform the following functions:
(ii) To formulate flood forecasting and cyclone warnings.
(iv) To formulate detailed proposal on advance flood warnings, flood control and Irrigation Project so that the water resources of the region can be utilized on an equipment basis for the mutual benefit of the people of the two countries.
(v) To formulate proposal for countries to co-ordinate research on problems of flood control affecting both the countries.
Indo-Nepal Sub-Commission on Water Resources
The Indo-Nepal, sub-commission on water resources was set-up in August 1988, to deal with all aspects of Indo-Nepal Cooperation in the multiple uses of Water Resources for mutual benefit. In additional to the matter already under discussion at secretary-level and other meetings, the sub-commission shall identify new programes/Project for water resources development for cooperation between India and Nepal in specific sectors viz. irrigation, water-logging and drainage, hydro-electric power generation. Inland navigation, collection of hydrological data, measures to prevent and reduce losses due to floods, flood forecasting and flood warning, environment safeguard measures and transfer of technology suited to the requirement of both the countries
DAMS: DESCRIPTION, BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS
A number of big, medium and minor dams have been envisaged under different river valley projects. These dams have been undertaken for irrigation, power generation and water supply. These dams, hailed as the Temples of Modern India by the country’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, have increased agricultural production, power generation and reduced dependence on imports. A brief description of the dams and benefit accruing form them is as under:
Farak Barrage Project
The Furka Barrage Project is designed to subserve the need for preservation and maintenance of the Calcutta Port by improving the regime and navigability of the Bhagirathi Hooghly River System. The Bhagirathi, the feeder canal and the navigation lock at the Faraca Barrage form part of the Haldi-Allahabad Inland Waterway for which an act has been passed.
The principles components of the Farakka Barrage Project are:
(a) 2,240 metre-long barrage across the Ganga, designed to pass a flood discharge of 76,455 cumec or 27 lakh, with rail-cum-road bridge, the necessary river draining works and a head regulator on the right side;
(b) 213 metre-long garrage across the Bhragirathi at Jangipur, designed to pass flood discharge of 1,700 cusecs or 60,000 cusecs;
(c) Feeder canal of 1,133 cusecs or 40,000 cusecs carrying capacity and 38.38 km-long taking off from the head regulator on the right-side of the Faraka Barrage, tailingoff into the Bhagirathi below Jangipur Barrage
(d) Navigation works such as locks, channels, shelter navigation lights and other infrastructures.
MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDE
Forests are important regulators of ecosystems. They exert significant effects on the water budget and the hydrological cycle
In areas of heavy rainfall, the tree crowns and other forest plants intercept a large fraction of the rain. Some of the water reaching the forest floor penetrates into the soil through the litter and the loose soil surface, and there is little surface run-off. The seeped water reaches the streams and rivers only after some period of time. This time lag is and important device to regulate the water discharge into rivers. It is in this way, that flooding is prevented or minimized. Thus, in dry periods also the forest soil continues to feed the streams and rivers.
Besides the indiscriminate use of pesticides and fungicides has caused adverse effects on soils in addition to their well-known effects on the activities of soil microbes, flora and fauna. Various kinds of air pollutants and noxious gases also have a harmful effect on soils
Nature of the Problem
The problem of soil erosion is throughout the world. In U.S.A. over 77 million acres of land has become seriously eroded. It is reported that after the rain begins the cream of soil is skimmed off with every spell of showers.
The gravity of the problem of soil erosion may become evident from the face that of all potentially arable land, only about 44 per cent is under cultivation. The rest i.e. 56 per cent is unsuitable for farming due to inherent soil problems and man induced problems. Only about 2.5 million sq. km. Arable land is irrigated at great cost and with many side effects. Massive irrigation is harmful to fertility due to salinisation. Thus, in a short time, approximately 600 million hectares of potential farmland will be lost to soil erosion, salinisation, and waterlogging. By that time the world population will reach 8 billion. Even if another 300 million hectares of the land, which is at present, lying unused is brought under farming, the net result will be that the area of farmland per person will dwindle from 0.31 to 0.15 hectares
It is observed that soil loss is maximum in region with high population densities. Continuous cultivation of same crop also adds to soil loss. At present the rate of soil erosion is over 2500 million tones per year i.e. over half a ton of soil every man, woman and child on the planet. Certainly we cannot afford such a loss. Soil erosion can be called one of the most difficult problems which the present day world is facing particularly in country as ours. The Indian subcontinent is faced with severe silting problems in Bhakra, Rihand and other multipurpose dams. It is estimated that the life of Bhakra dam is reduced by 250 years due to lack of proper attention towards silt prevention at Govind Sagar Lake, the main reservoir of the dam. It is quite formidable to think that owing to alarming rate at which silt is accumulating, it may not last for more than 150 years although it was designed originally to last for 400 years). The Border Road organization while constructing roads along the Sutlej also failed to take adequate steps to prevent debris and soil from entering the river. The Spiti River discharges a considerable amount of silt in the Sutlej. In the absence of any vegetation in Spiti valley, soil erosion is inevitable and the rocks from nude mountains crumble under the flow of water. In the eastern hills of Nepal about 38 per cent of the land area has fields on the topsoil whereof has been washed away depriving it of its fertility.
On making a comparative study of the sediment loads from major rivers of the world it is seen that yellow River in China carried 1.6 billion tons of soil to ocean each year. At the same time, the Ganges carries nearly 1.5 billion tons and Mississippi, the largest river of the USA carries only about 0.36 billion tons into the Gulf of Mexico. The startling point is that both the Ganges and the Mississippi have almost same discharge
It is evident from the table that the loss of cropland soil is maximum in India as it is 18.5% of the total soil loss at global level. The situation is grave because India has only 2.4% of the land area of the world. In USSR it is 9.80% whereas in USA only 6.70% (Fig. 2.6).
Kinds of Soil Erosion
(1) Normal or geologic erosion
This type of soil erosion occurs under normal natural conditions by itself without any interference of man. It is a very slow process, and equilibrium between loss and build up is lost, only when there is some major disturbance by a foreign agent.
(2) Accelerated soil erosion
This type of removal of soil is very rapid and never keeps pace with the soil formation. This is generally caused by an interference of an agency like man and other animals.
Methods of Conservation
(1) Biological Methods
Conservation achieved by the use of plan vegetation cover the following:
(i) Agronomic Practices: In areas with normal farming, where vegetation itself is used for soil protection
(ii) Dry Farming: In areas with low and moderate rainfall, where normal farming is not possible.
(iii) Agrostological Methods : In areas which are suitable for successful growth of grasses used as soil binders to check soil erosion.
(2) Mechanical Methods
Conservation achieved by supplementing the biological methods with a view to increase the time of concentration of water, to reduce the velocity of water, or afford protection against damage due to run off:
(i) Basin Listing: To construct small basins along the contours
(ii) Contour Terracing: To construct small basins along the slope to intercept and divert the runoff water.
(3) Other Methods
Conservation achieved by purely mechanical method including construction as under:
(i) Gully Control: Formation or widening of gullies
(ii) Stream Bank Protection : To grow vegetation alongside construction of drains stone pitching etc.
(iii) Afforestation: To check the velocity of wind by tree plantation (windbreads).
2. Less exploitation of Resources
We must bear in mind that resource exploitation and pollution are two faces of the same coin since exploitation of resources in one place can become environmental degradation either in the same place or in a remote area. We are aware of the adverse effects on the ocean harvest, which are often caused by man’s activities on land. Thus, biocides and persistent inorganic pesticdes, which are used to increase crop yields on land, lead to decrease the yields of fish and other proteins from the oceans. Increasing use of biocides for boosting carbohydrate yields on land is likely to lead to such high increase in their concentration in the oceans as to significantly reduce its productivity.
3. Control over Population Increase
We should aim at striving for an optimum instead of maximum, sutainable population size on Earth, and to arrive at the optimum figure after due consideration of the complex environmental problems. The optimum size permits long-term persistence of the population in equilibrium with its environment. The optimum represents that stage when any further addition of more members would result in deterioration of the quality of like of those already present.
4. To Make An Integrated and Holistic Approach in Tackling Environmental Problem
Environmental strategies and programmes must be based on a thorough analysis of technical and economic factors as well as of social and political dimensions of the environmental problem. Such an approach includes an analysis of balance of political forces besides issues of livelihood for disadvantaged groups.
5. Increase in the Plant Cover
The plant cover is essential for the maintenance of the soil in a balanced and healthy state. Over-exploitation of forests and deforestation practices lead to soil erosion with the topsoil washing down the stream. It results in the ruin of soil fertility. We are annually losing millions of tons of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium through soil erosion. Nearly 5,000 million tons of soil are being annually lost by water erosion, and the loss of valuable nutrients in this way often reaches colossal proportions. It is estimated that thousands of acres of arable soil are also being rendered unfit for farming due to salinity and alkalinity problems. Here it may be mentioned that the Green Revolution has further generated some newer problems of soil fertility depletion, mineral nutrient imbalances, agricultural residues, etc. In some parts of Punjab for instance, paddy straw of the high-yielding rice variety IR8 is found responsible for the deterioration in health of cattle because of its abnormally high content of certain mineral salts.
6. Proper Use of Water
Agricultural use of soil is linked with the use of water which is required for irrigation. Much progress has been achieved in the large-scale storage of water in Dams and Reservoirs for agricultural use and for generation of hydroelectric power, but economy in its use is paid no heed. We must remember that policies directed toward the maximum economic yield from a fixed amount of water will result in maximum conservation and also that planning for the maximum use of water ought to be correlated with planning for the optimum use of land resources.
7. Proper Irrigation for Soil Conservation
The land resources of India have been increasingly degraded. Excessive unplanned canal irrigation without proper drainage and water management has resulted in seepage, water logging and salinity. Seven million hectares are already affected and another ten million are threatened. About 150 million hectare area suffers from wind and water erosion. This results in the loss of valuable topsoil. Rising water tables is also responsible for increasing salinization of farm lands. Soil erosion causes premature silting up on many reservoirs and tanks
8. Proper Use of Wood
Our country is gifted with a fairly considerable potentiality for increasing the supply of such renewable resources as forests and forest products that could substitute for some of the scarce non-renewable resources. As such, it is advisable to substitute wood and wood products for the non-renewable fuel and energy sources, as has been commonly practiced in villages since times immemorial. Wood has certain advantages as fuel. As compared to coal, its sulphur content and ash content are very low. The ash which is left, can be used as a fertilizer. Wood and vegetable fibres might also some day furnish us certain primary organic chemicals. In our country and other tropical countries wood residues may profitably be converted into liquid and gaseous fuels. This can relieve, to some extent the problem of scarcity of large-scale exploitable oil and coal resources, which are non-renewable ones.
9. Substitution of Biomass for Petroleum Product
(i) The energy supplies are increased, and
(ii) The environment is cleaned up
Biomass is amenable to genetic manipulations and is flexible through crop switching. Biomass encompasses wood chips, sawdust, maize stalks, other vegetable matter, municipal and organic wastes
10. Fuel Alcohol from Biomass
Ethanol and methanol can be used as fuels or may be blended with petrol and used in a spark type internal combustion engine. These alcohols can be produced from biomass and agricultural residues, etc.
11. Use of Solar Energy
Solar thermal systems are the best developed and simplest of the solar technologies. It is proved that Solar energy can be gainfully conserved by suitable architectural designs that gainfully exploit the site and building materials to turn a building into a solar collector. In Active solar thermal systems the basic unit is the solar collector- a panel commonly made of aluminium, glass, plastic and copper. When fitted to a roof, these panels absorb direct sunlight and transfer heat to a fluid that passes through the collector. The fluid flows through pipes into the building where it is used to heat water or warm the rooms. The solar cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Photovoltaics (solar cells) generate an electromotive force in a material as a result of its absorbing ionizing radiation.
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE TO LIFE STYLE
Introduction
Man has a great responsibility to render equitable use of resources capable of inducing significant alternations in the environment either intentionally or inadvertently. He is capable of altering the basic functioning of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and the whole biosphere. The most essential basic attribute of most environments is that they are muti dimensional systems of complex relationships in a continuing state of change. It is also generally recognized that the loss of life caused by such calamities as floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakes, is largely due to the quality of natural environments as well as mankind’s misdeeds
Methods for Equitable Use of Resources
The following methods may be suggested:
1. Equitable Use of Soil
It is due to our misdeeds that many of our once-fertile soils have been converted to agriculturally unfit alkaline or saline lands or marshlands. More than 25 million hectares of such barren lands are now estimated to be distributed throughout the world.
Soil constitutes a biogeochemical shell around land and shallow waters. Recent increases in the pace of industrialization, urbanization and other activities of of civilized man have exerted a tremendous impact not only on the soils but also on other components of the biosphere. Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has brought about serious changes both in land and water. The washing-off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused considerable soil erosion. There has also been a great increase in run-off, pollution, turbidity and mineralization in rivers and extensive silting in water reservoirs. It is essential to take a recourse to contour and strip farming, a network of forest plantations in clumps and rows, a regular sowing of grass in crop rotations, the preferential use of organic, rather than inorganic, manures, etc. The use of organic manure is especially desirable since it tends to preserve the quality of soil and also their humus content
Steps should be taken to safeguard soils from exogenous chemical substances, mineral fertilizers, pesticides, etc. Heavy doses of the wrong kind of inorganic fertilizer have often resulted in creating excessive acidity or alkalinity in the soil, and the indiscriminate use of pesticides and fungicides has caused adverse effects on soil. Efforts should be made to restore the fertility of the fallow lands by use of fertilizers and new technology. The forested land in India is below the scientific norm. Normally for self-contained and proper eco balance, at least, one-third or the total land area must be under forest and natural vegetation. In India it is as low as 19.3%. We must increase our area under forests.
A part of the land not in use is classified as wasteland. This includes the arid, rocky and sandy deserts. Much of the land is being used in cities and towns as residential land. Cities and towns must grow vertically rather than horizontally now. The land is also needed for industry, commerce, transport and recreation. Since total land is a fixed asset, we must make efforts for integrated land use planning. Land is an important component of the life support system. Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1972 said, “We can no longer afford to neglect our most important natural resource. This is not simply an environmental problem but one which is basic to the future of our country.” In a predominantly agricultural country like ours, land comes first.
For proper planning we need authentic figures agreed upon by the concerned departments viz agriculture, forestry, revenue records etc. using modern method as remote sensing. It is observed that good agricultural land is going to industrial estates and for urban development. Thus valuable cropland is lost to agriculture forever. This is not in national interest. The best land use planning has been done by Japan, being hard pressed for land. A strategy must be developed to cure past damage and to save the country from future damage to land. A strategy must be developed to cure past damage and to save the country from future damage to land. This can be achieved by following the methods mentioned as under:
(i) To prepare accurate land use data through remote sensing
(ii) A time bound nation wide survey programme of micro-level land use planning giving short and long-term scenarios,
(iii) To prepare land use classes,
(iv) To review all existing legislations and to update them and
(v) Management plans for land amelioration are to be prepared. This would lead to a dynamic land-use policy.
2. Proper Management of Water Resources
Water is an integral part of land/soil productivity base. Its misuse can cause soil degradation and soil erosion. Water management is necessary for crop yields and other activities. Primary channel flow originates in upper catchments and these watersheds are very important for future
3. Watershed Management
In India floods bring much havoc causing loss of life and property each year. Due to floods, the plains have become silted with mud and sand, thus affecting the cultivable land areas. Extinction of civilisation in some coastal areas is mainly due to such natural calamites as flood. Flood damage cost the country Rs. 21 crore in 1951, which increased to Rs. 1,130 crore in 1977. the worst suffering states are Assam, Bihar, Orissa, U.P. and West Bengal. Through modern technology and scientific knowledge steps are to be taken. There is need of a proper understanding of the ecosystem so that changes could be forecast well in time. Thus management of rainfall and resultant runoff, which is essential, can be best based on a natural unit called watershed. A watershed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow. Thus it may be drainage basin or stream. The Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the world. The cast hydroelectric power potential can be harnessed from Himalayan watersheds if proper control measures are taken. They are inclusive of soil and land use survey, soil conservation in catchments of River Valley Projects and flood prone rivers, afforestation or social forestry programmes, Drought Prone Area Development Programmes and Desert Development and Control of Shifting Cultivation.
4. Afforestation
Top priority should be given to the forestry. Forests occupy central position in nature. They restore ecological balance of all ecosystems (including desert), maintain biological diversity, act as catchments for soil and water conservation, prevent floods and safeguard future of tribals. We should develop massive afforestation programmes of indigenous and exotic fast growing species for production and protection forestry on suitable land including wasteland. A massive social forestry programme is needed to meet demands of local people for fuel, fodder, timber etc. the two major goals for forestry are
(i) Supply of goods and services to people and industry by a well thought out plan of production,
(ii) Long term ecological security through conservation of forests cover and its restoration.
The areas where our water regimes are located i.e. Himalayas and Western and Eastern ghats together with catchment areas; National Parks; Sanctuaries, Sacred Groves; Biosphere Reserves and all ecologically fragile areas should be protected from fuel-starved villagers and fodder-starved cattle. For this, public support must be generated in order to fulfil the real goal of eco-development
5. Proper Management of Drinking Water
This Resource (water) is renewable. However, it is subject to abuse and misuse. Infact, most of our water problems, are not those of quantity or even necessarily of quality, but are rather caused by our way of thinking and attitudes. If man learns to live with man on a cooperative basis, the water problem, like many other ecological problems, could be solved. The replenishable ground water resources in India are sufficient to provide assured irrigation to 40 million hectares. The present level of development is estimated at 25 million hectares, i.e. about 40 per cent of the total irrigation potential created in the country.
Drinking water becomes more significant in a developing country because it serves as a source of micronutrients that are so essential for good health. Deficiency or excess of the essential trace elements can cause disorders. Drinking water is an important source of intake of trace elements.
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