Drugs Containing Volatile Oils

Chapter 17

Drugs Containing Volatile Oils

INTRODUCTION

• Volatile oils are odorous volatile principles of plant and animal source, evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperature, and hence known as volatile or ethereal oils. These represent essence of active constituents of the plant and hence also known as essential oils. In most instances the volatile oil preexists in the plant and is usually contained in some special secretory tissues, for example, the oil ducts of umbelliferous fruits, the oil cells, or oil glands occurring in the sub-epidermal tissue of the lemon and orange, mesophyll of eucalyptus leaves, trichomes of several plants, etc.

• In few cases the volatile oil does not preexist but is formed by the decomposition of a glycoside. For example, whole black mustard seeds are odourless, but upon crushing the seeds and adding water to it a strong odour is evolved. This is due to allyl isothiocyanate (the main constituent of essential oil of mustard) formed by decomposition of a glycoside, sinigrin, by an enzyme, my rosin. Glycoside and enzyme are contained in different cells of the seed tissue and are unable to react until the seeds are crushed with water present, so that the cell contents can intermingle. 

• Volatile oils are freely soluble in ether and in chloroform and fairly soluble in alcohol; they are insoluble in water. The volatile oils dissolve many of the proximate principles of plant and animal tissues, such as the fixed oils and fats, resins, camphor, and many of the alkaloids when in the free state. 

• These are chemically derived from terpenes (mainly mono and sesqui terpenes) and their oxygenated derivatives. These are soluble in alcohol and other organic solvents, practically insoluble in water, lighter than water (Clove oil heavier), possess characteristic odour, have high refraction index, and most of them are optically active. Volatile oils are colourless liquids, but when exposed to air and direct sunlight these become darker due to oxidation. Unlike fixed oils, volatile oils neither leave permanent grease spot on filter paper nor saponified with alkalis.

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLATILE OILS

Volatile oils are classified on the basis of functional groups present as given

EXTRACTION OF VOLATILE OILS

• Volatile oils are prepared by means of several techniques and those techniques are discussed below:

Extraction by Distillation

• The distillation is carried out either by water or steam. The volatile oils from fresh materials are separated by hydro distillation, and volatile oils from air dried parts are separated by steam distillation. However, it is better to use fresh materials in either case.

Extraction by Scarification

This method is used for the preparation of oil of lemon, oil of orange, and oil of bergamot. These oils are found in large oil glands just below the surface in the peel of the fruit. The two principal methods of scarification are the sponge and the ecuelle method.

• Sponge Process: In this process the contents of the fruit are removed after making longitudinal or transverse cut, and the peel is been immersed in water for a short period of time. Then it is ready for expression. The operator takes a sponge in one hand and with the other presses the softener peel against the sponge, so that the oil glands burst open, and the sponge absorbs the exuded oil, which is transferred to a collecting vessel. The turbid liquid consisting of oil and water is allowed to stand for a short time, whereupon the oil separates from water and is collected. The whole of the above process is carried out in cool, darkened rooms to minimize the harmful effects of heat and light on the oil.

• Ecuelle Process: In this process, the rinds are ruptured mechanically using numerous pointed projections with a rotary movement and the oil is collected.

Extraction by Non-Volatile Solvent

A nonvolatile solvent, for example, a fine quality of either lard or olive oil, is used in this process. After saturation with the floral oil the lard or olive oil is sometimes used as a flavouring base for the preparation of pomades, brilliantine, etc., or converted to a triple extract. In the latter instance the lard or oil is agitated with two or three successive portions of alcohol, which dissolve the odorous substances. The mixed alcoholic solutions so obtained constitute the ‘triple extract’ of commerce.

There are three chief methods that come under this; they are enfleurage, maceration and a spraying process.

•  Enfleurage: In this a fatty layer is prepared using lard and the flower petals are spreaded over it, after the imbibitions is over the fatty layer is replaced with fresh petals. After the saturation of fatty layer the odorous principles are removed by treating with alcohol and a triple extract then prepared. When oil is used as a solvent the flowers are placed on an oil-soaked cloth supported by a metal grid enclosed in a frame. Fresh flowers are added as required, and finally the oil is expressed from the cloths. It may then be used as perfumed oil or extracted with alcohol to produce a triple extract.

•  Maceration: This is also used to extract the volatile matters of flowers. The lard or oil is heated over a water bath, a charge of flowers added, and the mixture stirred continuously for some time. The exhausted flowers are removed, pressed, the expressed fluid returned to the hot fat, fresh flowers, added and the process continued until defined weights of flowers and solvent have been used. Again, a triple extract is prepared by extracting the perfumed lard or oil with alcohol.

• Spraying: In this process a current of warm air is sprayed through a column of the flowers. Then oil or meltedfat is sprayed over this oil-laden air which absorbs and dissolves most of the perfume, the collected oil or fat is then extracted with alcohol as described above. 

Extraction by Volatile Solvent

• In this the flowers are extracted by using the solvent light petroleum and the latter is distilled off at a low temperature, leaving behind the volatile oil.

TERPENOIDS

• There are many different classes of naturally occurring compounds. Terpenoids also form a group of naturally occurring compounds majority of which occur in plants, a few of them have also been obtained from other sources. Terpenoids are volatile substances which give plants and flowers their fragrance. They occur widely in the leaves and fruits of higher plants, conifers, citrus and eucalyptus.

• The term ‘terpene’ was given to the compounds isolated from terpentine, a volatile liquid isolated from pine trees. The simpler mono and sesquiterpenes is the chief constituent of the essential oils obtained from sap and tissues of certain plant and trees. The di- and triterpenoids are not steam volatile. They are obtained from plant and tree gums and resins. Tertraterpenoids form a separate group of compounds called ‘Carotenoids’

• The term ‘terpene’ was originally employed to describe a mixture of isomeric hydrocarbons of the molecular formula C10H16 occurring in the essential oils obtained from sap and tissue of plants and trees. But there is a tendency to use more general term ‘terpenoids’, which includes hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives. However, the term terpene is being used these days by some authors to represent terpenoids.

• According to modern definition, ‘Terpenoids are the hydrocarbons of plant origin of the general formula (C5 H8) n as well as their oxygenated, hydrogenated, and dehydrogenated derivatives.

Isoprene Rule

Thermal decomposition of terpenoids gives isoprene as one of the product. Otto Wallach pointed out that terpenoids can be built up of isoprene unit. Isoprene rule states that the terpenoid molecules are constructed from two or more isoprene unit.

Special Isoprene Rule

It states that the terpenoid molecules are constructed of two or more isoprene units joined in a ‘head to tail’ fashion.

But this rule can only be used as guiding principle and not as a fixed rule. For example, carotenoids are joined tail to tail at their central, and there are also some terpenoids whose carbon content is not a multiple of five.

CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENOIDS

Most natural terpenoid hydrocarbons have the general formula (C5 H8) n . They can be classified on the basis of number of carbon atoms present in the structure.

Classify cation of Terpenoids

 Each class can be further subdivided into subclasses according to the number of rings present in the structure.

•  Acyclic Terpenoids: They contain open structure. 

•  Monocyclic Terpenoids: They contain one ring in the structure. 

•  Bicyclic Terpenoids: They contain two rings in the structure. 

•  Tricyclic Terpenoids: They contain three rings in the structure. 

•  Tetracyclic Terpenoids: They contain four rings in the structure.

EVALUATION OF VOLATILE OILS

• Product from different manufacturers varies considerably, since it is inherently difficult to control all the factors that affect a plants chemical composition. Environmental conditions such as sunlight and rainfall, as well as manufacturing process can create substantial variability in essential oil quality. Various procedures are given for the evaluation of essential oils. Preliminary examinations like Oduor, taste, and colour. Physical measurements, which includes optical rotation, relative density, and refractive index. Chromatographic techniques are used to determine the proportions of individual components of certain oils. The ketone and aldehyde content of oils are determined by reaction with hydroxylamine hydrochloride (oxime formation) and titration of the liberated acid. The oil, which passes the above examinations, would be having good quality and therapeutic value.

CHEMICAL TESTS

Natural drugs containing volatile oils can be tested by following chemical tes

• Thin section of drug on treatment with alcoholic solution of Sudan III develops red colour in the presence of volatile oils. 

•  Thin section of drug is treated with tincture of alkana, which produces red colour that indicates the presence of volatile oils in natural drugs.

STORAGE OF VOLATILE OILS

• Volatile oils are liable to oxidation on storage in presence of air, moisture, and light. The oxidation is followed by the change in colour, increase in viscosity, and change in odour. Hence, volatile oils must be stored in well-closed completely filled containers and away from light in cool places.

PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS

Volatile oils are used as flavouring agent, perfuming agent in pharmaceutical formulations, foods, beverages, and in cosmetic industries. These are also used as important medicinal agent for therapeutic purposes like: 

• Carminative (e.g., Umbelliferous fruits) 

• Anthelminitic (e.g., Chenopodium oil) 

• Diuretics (e.g., Juniper) 

• Antiseptic (e.g., Eucalyptus) 

• Counter irritant (e.g., Oil of winter green) 

• Local anesthetic (e.g., Clove) 

• Sedative (e.g., Jatamansi) 

• Local irritant (e.g., Turpentine) 

• Insect repellent (e.g., Citronella) 

• Source of vitamin A (e.g. Lemongrass) 

VOLATILE OILS CONTAINING HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons are present in all volatile oils. Limonene is the most widely distributed of the monocyclic terpenes. It occurs in Citrus, Mint, Myristica, Caraway, Thyme, Cardamom, Coriander, and many other oils. Another monocyclic hydrocarbon monoterpene is p-cymene, present in Coriander, Thyme, Cinnamon, and Myristica oils. Pinene, a dicyclic monoterpene, is also widely distributed. It occurs in many conifer oils and in Lemon, Anise, Eucalyptus, Thyme, Fennel, Cori ander, Orange flower, and Myristica oils. Sabinene, a dicyclic monoterpene of the thujane class, present in cardamom and lemon oils. Acyclic monoterpene myrcene occurs in Myricia, Lemon, and Myristica. Cadinene occurring in juniper tar, is a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon. β-Caryophyllene is a sesquiterpene found in Wormwood, Peppermint, Cinnamon, and Clove oils. `

A volatile oil drug composed mainly of hydrocarbons is turpentine oil.

TURPENTINE OIL

Synonyms

• Oleum terbinthae, rectified oil of turpentine.

Botanical Source

• Turpentine oil is the volatile oil obtained by the distillation of oleoresin from Pinus longifolia Roxb and various species of Pinus, belonging to family Pinaceae.

Geographical Source

• Pinus longifolia is cultivated in India and Pakistan, the other species are cultivated in the United States, France, Europe, and Russia.

Collection and Preparation

• The oleoresins which are collected are transferred to copper stills, water is added and heated. The impurities like woody debris, sand, and other particles float on the surface of water which is skimmed off. The clarified resin is then subjected to distillation for obtaining the oil. The oil obtained is then treated with aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The treatment with sodium hydroxide removes the traces of phenols, cresol, and resin acids. This oil which is produced is called the rectified turpentine oil.

Characteristics

• Turpentine oil is a colourless to slightly yellowish transparent liquid with a strong characteristic odour and bitter, pungent taste. It is soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water, and miscible with glacial acetic acid, ether, chloroform, and fixed oil. Turpentine oil should be stored in air-tight containers and in a cool place.

Chemical Constituents

Oil of turpentine contains more than 40 terpenes; the chief terpenes are α- and β- pinene with small quantity of camphene, limonene, etc.

 Uses

• Turpentine oil is used as counterirritant, rubefacient, in swelling, neuralgia, as mild antiseptic, as an expectorant in chronic bronchitis, as diuretic, and urinary antiseptic. When taken internally it causes irritation of kidney also. In industries it is used in the preparation of disinfectants, insecticides, paints, varnishes, and pine oil.

Adulterants

• The common adulterants are resin oil, wood turpentine, and petroleum jelly. The last adulterant is detected by low weight per ml of the oil and resin oil forms a stain of fatty matters on staining on a paper.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Rumalaya gel and Pain balm (Himalaya Drug Company).

VOLATILE OILS CONTAINING ALCOHOLS

Alcohols found in volatile oils are classified as:

• acyclic alcohols, 

• monocyclic alcohols, and 

• dicyclic alcohols. Methyl, ethyl, isobutyl, isoamyl, hexyl, and the higher aliphatic alcohols occur in volatile oils. They are soluble in water, hence, they are washed away in the process of steam distillation. Many natural oils contain acyclic alcohols, geraniol, linalool, and citronellol. The important monocyclic alcohols are menthol (from Peppermint) and α-terpineol; borneol is a dicyclic terpene alcohol from Borneo camphor, Sesquiterpene alcohols include zingiber Ol santalols and artemisin.

The important alcohol volatile oil containing drugs are Peppermint, Cardamom oil, Coriander oil, Rose oil, Orange flower oil, Juniper oil, and Pine oil.

PEPPERMINT

Synonym

• Brandy Mint.

Botanical Source

• It is the oil obtained by the distillation of Mentha piperita, belonging to family Labiatae.

Geographical Source

• It is mainly found in Europe, United States, and also in damp places of England.

Cultivation and Collection

• Peppermint thrives best in a fairly warm, preferably moist climate, with well-drained, deep soils rich in humus. Peppermint will grow successfully, if once started into growth and carefully cultivated. The usual method of cultivation is to dig runners in the early spring and lay them in shallow trenches, 3 feet apart in well-prepared soil. The growing crop is kept well-cultivated and absolutely free from weeds and in the summer when the plant is in full bloom, the mint is cut by hand and distilled in straw. A part of the exhausted herb is dried and used for cattle food.

Characteristics

• The leaves are shortly and distinctly stalked, 2 inches long and 3/4 to 1.5 inches broad. The margins are finely toothed, with smooth upper and lower surfaces The stems are 2 to 4 feet high, frequently purplish in colour. The flowers are reddish violet in colour, present in the axils of the upper leaves, forming loose, interrupted spikes. The plant has a characteristic odour and if applied to the tongue has a hot, aromatic taste at first and afterwards produces a sensation of cold in the mouth caused by menthol present in it. Oil is colourless, yellowish or greenish liquid, with penetrating odour and a burning, camphor scent taste. On storage it becomes thick and reddish but increases the mellowness even if it is stored for 14 years.

Chemical Constituents

The chief constituent of Peppermint oil is Menthol, along with other constituents like menthyl acetate, isovalerate, menthone, cineol, inactive pinene, limonene, and other less important bodies. Menthol separates on cooling it to a low temperature (–22°C). The flavouring properties of the oil are due to both the ester and alcoholic constituents, whereas the medicinal value is attributed only due to the alcoholic components. The English oil contains 60to 70% of Menthol, the Japanese oil containing 85%, and the American has only about 50%.

Uses

• It is stimulant, stomachic, carminative, in flatulence, and colic, in some dyspepsia, sudden pains, for cramp in the abdomen and also in cholera and diarrhoea. Oil of peppermint allays sickness and nausea, as infants' cordial. Peppermint is good to aid in raising internal heat and inducing perspiration. It is also used in cases of hysteria and nervous disorders

Adulterants

• Camphor oil, Cedarwood oil, and oil of African Copaiba are occasionally used as an adulterant of Peppermint oil, the oil is also adulterated with one-third part of rectified spirit. If adulterated with rectified spirit it can be identified by agitating, it with water which produces milkiness. Rosemary oil and Turpentine oil are also sometimes used as adulterants.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Dabur lal tooth powder (Dabur).

PUDINA

Synonyms

• Spearmint, Garden mint, Mackerel mint, Our lady’s mint, Green mint, Sage of Bethlehem.

Biological Source

• Pudina consists of dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha spicata Linn., belonging to family Labiatae.

Geographical Source

• It is originally a native of the Mediterranean region and was later introduced into Britain.

History

• Mint is mentioned in all early mediaeval lists of plants; it was grown in English gardens and cultivated in the Convent gardens during the ninth century. The Ancients believed that mint would prevent the coagulation of milk, to scent their bath water and as a restorative, as we use smelling salts today. Mint was so universally esteemed, that it was found wild in nearly all the countries to which civilization has extended. In America for 200 years, the mint was known as an escape from gardens, growing in all moist soils and proving on occasion troublesome like a weed. In the fourteenth century, mint was used for whitening the teeth, and its distilled oil is still used to flavour toothpastes, and in America, it is used specially to flavour chewing gums, confectionery, and also perfume soap.

Cultivation and Collection\

• Mint does well in almost all soil (though in dry, sandy soils it is occasionally difficult to grow) but should be planted in the cool and damp condition. As the plant is perennial, creeping stems propagations are used by lilting the roots in February or March, the stems are divided into small pieces and planted in shallow trenches, covering with 2 inches of soil. The distance between each plant is six inches within the rows and 8 inches between the rows. Cuttings can be taken at almost, any time during the summer and the young shoots are chosen for cutting. Good topdressing of soil is to be done, to obtain good mint or the plantation should be remade every three years. For liberal topdressing of short, decayed manure, such as an old hotbed or mushroom beds are added. When it commences to grow, or better still, perhaps, after the first or second cutting, will ensure luxuriant growth. When the plants are breaking into bloom, the stalks should be cut a few inches above the root, on a dry day (after the dew has disappeared) and before the hot sun takes any oil from the leaves. All discoloured and insect-eaten leaves should be removed and the stemtied loosely into bunches and hung to dry on strings in the usual manner directed for bunched herb. The bunches should be nearly equal in length and uniform in size to facilitate packing, if intended for sale and placed when dry in airtight boxes to prevent reabsorption of moisture. The leaves may also be stripped from the stems as soon as thoroughly dried and rubbed through a fine sieve, so as to free it from stalks as much as possible, or pounded in a mortar and then powdered, stored in stoppered bottles or tins rendered airtight.

Characteristics

From creeping rootstocks, erect, square stems rise to a height of about 2 feet, with very short-stalked, lance-shaped, acute-pointed, wrinkled, bright green leaves. It has finetoothed edges and smooth surfaces, the ribs very prominent on the lower surface. Leaves are sessile, lanceolate to oblong, acute apex, and coarsely dentate margin. The flowers are densely arranged in whorls in the axils of the upper leaves, forming slender, cylindrical, tapering spikes, pinkish in colour. The plant has characteristic taste and odour.

Chemical Constituents

It contains about 0.5% volatile oil containing carvone. It also contains limonene, phellandrine, dihydrocarveol acetate, esters of acetic, butyric, and caproic or caprylic acids. The drug also contains resin and tannins.

Uses

• The drug is used as spice, flavouring agent, carminative, digestive, spasmolytic, stimulant, and as a diuretic. Pudina is chiefly used for culinary purposes. Sweetened infusion is an excellent remedy for infantile trouble and also a pleasant beverage in fevers, inflammatory diseases, etc.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Rheumatil gel (Dabur).

SANDALWOOD OIL

Synonyms

• Chandan oil, sandal oil, yellow sandalwood oil, liginum.

Biological Source

• Sandalwood oil is obtained by distillation of sandalwood, Santalum album Linn., belonging to family Santalaceae.

Geographical Source

• Sandal is a small to medium-sized, evergreen semi parasitic tree found in the dry regions of peninsular India from Vindhya Mountains southwards, especially in Mysore and Tamil Nadu. It has also been introduced in Rajasthan, parts of U.P., M.P., and Orissa.

Cultivation

• Sandal tree grows mostly on red, ferruginous loam overlying metamorphic rocks, chiefly gneiss, and tolerates shallow, rocky ground and stony or gravelly soils, avoiding saline and calcareous situations. It is not found on the black-cotton soil. The growth is luxuriant on rich and fairly moist soils, such as garden loam and on well-drained deep alluvium along the riverbanks, but the heartwood from these trees is deficient in oil. The trees grown on poor soils, particularly on stony or gravelly soil, produce more highly scented wood, giving a better yield of the oil.

• It reproduces from seeds dispersed by birds. Germination is profuse in the forests immediately after the monsoons. For artificial regeneration, it is necessary to provide suitable climatic and ecological conditions. For procuring seeds, the fruits are collected during January–March. Germination is up to 80%. Just after the first monsoon showers, the sandal seeds are dibbed and protected by thorny bushes. The seeds germinate in about 8–14 days. The seedlings grow rapidly, that is, up to 20–30 cm high, at the end of the first year.

Characteristics

Sandalwood oil is viscous, yellowish liquid having a peculiar, heavy, sweet, and very lasting odour. It has sp. gr. 0.97–0.98, viscosity 1.5 and acid value

Microscopy

Transverse section of wood shows alternating lighter and darker zones. The xylem consists of vessels and fibres. Vessels are large and usually occur single extending from one medullary ray to the next. Fibres are densely packed with interspersed air space termed as lacunae and constitute bulk of wood. Medullary rays are very fine, usually two cells wide and closed together. Volatile oil is deposited in the heartwood and is found in all the elements of the wood; it is not secreted by or contained in any particular cells or glands.

Chemical Constituents

The main odorous and medicinal constituent of Sandalwood is santalol. This primary sesquiterpene alcohol forms more than 90% of the oil and is present as a mixture of two isomers, α-santalol and β-santalol, the former predominating. The other constituents reported are hydrocarbons santene, nor-tricycloekasantalene, α-, and β- santalenes.

Uses

• Sandalwood oil is highly used in perfumery creations and finds an important place in soaps, face creams, and toilet powders. A chemo-protective action on liver carcinogenesis in mice has been demonstrated.

Substitutes and Adulterants

• Oil from several plant sources are either used as substitutes for or as adulterants of natural sandalwood oil. Oil obtained from the Australian plant Fusanus spicatus (Eucarya spicata) is used as a substitute for genuine Sandalwood oil. Wood and oil of Santalum yasi have a feeble odour which is not delicate like that of Indian Sandalwood oil. East Africa markets the wood and oil derived from Osyris tenuifolia, the wood is similar to sandal and is used as an adulterant. An oil from Mauritius possesses most of the characteristics of the Indian oil. In West Indies, oil derived from Amyris balsamifera Linn. is marketed as a cheap substitute for Indian sandalwood oil. In India, the wood of Erythroxylon monogynic Roxby. is used as an adulterant. The wood of Mansonia gagei Drum, resembles sandalwood closely in its physical and other characteristics. Another species, which is common in southern India and used as an adulterant, is Ximenia americana Linn. The oil is adulterated with polyethylene glycols.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Abana, Evecare, Lukol, Antiwrinkle cream (Himalaya Drug Company) and Mahamarichadi tail, Brahma rasayan (Dabur).

VOLATILE OILS CONTAINING ALDEHYDES

• Aldehydes present in volatile oils are divided into acyclic and cyclic. The acyclic aldehydes are citral, which is amixture of geranial to neral, and citronellal, the aldehyde corresponding to citronellol. The cyclic aldehydes are safranin, phellandral, photocontrol A, and myrtenol. The aromatic aldehydes include cinnamaldehyde and vanillin.
• The important drugs in this class are Cinnamon, Orange oil, Lemon peel, Lemon oil, and Citronella oil.

LEMONGRASS OIL

Synonyms

• East India lemongrass, Malabar, or Cochin Lemongrass.

Biological Source

• Lemongrass oil is obtained from Cymbopogon flexuous Stapf. (syn. Andropogon Nardus var. flexuous Hack.), belonging to family Poaceae. It contains not less than 75% of aldehydes calculated as citral.

Geographical Source

• Lemongrass is indigenous to India and is found in Tenerelli, Travancore, and Cochin. Two principal varieties of Lemongrass are recognized as the red-stemmed variety, the true C. flexuous, which is a source of East Indian Lemongrass oil and the white-stemmed variety which is designated as C. flexuous var. albescent. The oil from the latter is low in aldehyde content and is slightly soluble in 70% alcohol.

Cultivation

• Lemongrass grows best in well-drained sandy loam or in light sandy soil. Dark, heavy, rich soil gives a higher yield of grass, but the oil obtained from it has lower citral content. Warmth and sunshine favour oil development. The grass grown on lower slopes, less exposed to heavy rains, is rich in oil content. The grass is cultivated in forest clearings or on hill slopes at an altitude of about 700 m. The ground is ploughed in March–April and seeds are sown at random. The grasses come up with the first shower of the monsoon. Weeding is carried out systematically in the plantation. Protection against grazing is necessary. The grass is ready for cutting at the end of May or early in June and may be harvested every 35–40 days till November or December. The citral content of the oil is high (83%) when it is obtained from grass harvested during September–December. After cutting, the stubbles are burnt before the sporadic April monsoon shower. Fresh shoots come up from the roots with the start of regular monsoon, and the grass is ready for harvesting by the end of May. Plantations are renewed every six to eight years.

Characteristics

A light-colored oil, rich in citral content, is obtained by steam distillation. The yield varies from 0.25 to 0.5% per acre.

Chemical Constituents

Lemongrass oil is the principal source of citral (68–85%) from which ionone is derived. The oil also contains methyl heptanone, decyl aldehyde, geraniol, linalool, limonene, dipentene, citronellal, triacontane, triacontanol, intermedeol, isointermedeol, α- and β-pinene, car-3-ene, myrcene, ocimene, β-phellandrene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, terpinolene, methyl heptenone, geranyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, β-selinene, β-, γ- and δ-elemenes, α- and β-bisabolene, α-curcumins, γ- and δ-cadinene, methyl eugenol, elemol, β -caryophyllene oxide, eugenol, β-eudesmol, elemicin, farnesol, juniper-camphor, geraniol, anisaldehyde, terpinen4-ol, α - and β-terpineol, and borneol.

Uses

• The oil is used in perfumery, soaps, and cosmetics and as a mosquito repellent. Lonones obtained from citral are required for synthetic violet perfumes.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Sage lion balm (Sage Herbals).

LEMON PEEL

Synonym

• Fructus Limonis.

Biological Source

• Lemon peel is obtained from the fresh ripe fruit of Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (C medico var. limon Linn.), belonging to family Rutaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is cultivated in California. West Indies, Italy, Spain, Sicily, Portugal, Florida, California, Jamaica, and Australia; grown all over India, particularly in home gardens and small-sized orchards.

Collection

• Lemon plant is a small, 3–5 m high, evergreen thorny tree with shining leaves. Fruits are collected before their green colour changes to yellow in January, August, and November. The outer dark yellow peel is removed with a sharp knife. Dried lemon peel is spiral, 20 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick, outer surface is rough and yellow, inner surface is pithy and white. Odour is strong and aromatic, taste is aromatic and bitter.

Chemical Constituents

Lemon peel contains volatile oil (2.5%), vitamin C, hesperidin and other flavone glycosides, mucilage, pectin and calcium oxalate. The important constituents of the volatile oil are limonene (90%), citronellal, geranyl acetate, α-pinene, camphene, linalool, terpineol, methyl heptenone, octyl and nonyl aldehydes, γ-terpinene, β-pinene, neral, and geranial.

The peels also contain flavonoids eriocitrin, epigenin, luteolin, chrysoeriol, quercetin, isorhamnetin, limocitrin, limocitrol, isolimocitrol, hesperidin; coumarins scopoletin and umbelliferone; sinapic acid and β-coumaric acid.

Uses

• Lemon peel is used as a flavouring agent, perfumery, stomachic, and carminative. The oil, externally, is a strong rubefacient and if taken internally in small doses has stimulating and carminative properties.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Protein shampoo (Himalaya Drug Company), Panch Nimba churna (Zaipa Pharmaceuticals), and Ultra Doux conditioner (Garnier).

BITTER ORANGE PEEL

Synonyms

• Citrus vulgaris, Citrus bigaradia, Citrus aurantium amara, Bigarade orange, Bitter orange, Seville orange, (Sweet) Portugal orange, China orange, Citrus dulcis, Cortex aurantii amar L, Seville orange peel.

Biological Sources

• The orange peel is the fresh or dried outer part of the pericarp of Citrus aurantium Linn, belonging to family Rutaceous.

Geographical Source

• It is mainly cultivated in India, China, Spain, Madeira, Sicily, Malla, and Morocco.

Cultivation and Collection

• The tree requires a dry soil. It bears flowers after three years of grafting and the yield is increasing every year till it reaches its maximum, at about twenty years. A full-grown tree yield on an average 50 to 60 lb. of blossoms. One hundred orange trees, at the age of 10 years, will occupy nearly an acre of land and will produce about 2,200 lb of orange flowers in a season. May is the flowering season, and the flowers are gathered two or three times a week, after sunrise. When the autumn is mild and atmospheric conditions are favourable, flowering takes place in October, and this supplementary harvest continues until January or till flowering is stopped. The autumn flowers have much less perfume than those of the spring, and their value is also one-half the price of May flowers. The Bitter Orange and Edible Orange trees resemble each other, but their leafstalks show a marked difference. The Bitter Orange is broadened out in the shape of a heart. The yield of oil is greatly influenced by the temperature and atmospheric conditions prevailing at the time of gathering. Such as damp, cool, and changeable weather, considerable diminution is experienced. The dried orange peel is prepared by cutting with hand taking care that oil glands are not ruptured. Orange peel is dried in shade and stored in airtight containers at low temperature.

Characteristics

It is a small tree with a smooth, greyish brown bark and branches that spread into a regular hemisphere. The leaves are oval, alternate, evergreen, size ranging from 3 to 4 inches long, rarely with a spine in the axil. They are glossy, dark green on the upper surface, and lighter beneath. The calyx is cup-shaped and the thick, fleshy petals, five in number, are intensely white and curl back. The fruit is earth-shaped, a little rougher and darker than the common, sweet orange: the flowers are more strongly scented, and the glands in the rind are concave instead of convex. The dried peel is brittle and hard, dark orange red in colour, the surface is rough with oil glands which are slightly raised. The inner surface is yellowish white with pithy on them. It has an aromatic odour, bitter and aromatic taste. The oil of Bitter Orange Peel is pale yellow liquid; it is soluble in four volumes of alcohol. Neutral to litmus paper and specific gravity at 25°C is 0.842 to 0.848.

 Chemical Constituents

Bitter orange peel contains of 1 to 2.5% volatile oil. The principal component of volatile oil is 90% limonene and small quantities of aldehydes citral, citronellal, bitter amorphous glycoside like aurantiamarin and its acid:

 hesperidin, isohesperidin, vitamin C, and Pectin.

Uses

• It is used as aromatic, stomachic, carminative, and flavouring agent, it is used particularly in fish liver oil preparations and liver extract. The oil is used chiefly as a flavouring agent, used in the oil of turpentine in chronic bronchitis. It is nonirritant to the kidneys and pleasant to take.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Dabur Vatika Body and Bounce Shampoo (Dabur).

CINNAMON

Synonyms

• Cortex cinnamoni, Ceylon cinnamon, Saigon cinnamon, Chinese cassia, Cinnamomum aromaticum, Cinnamomum laurus.

Biological Source

• Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of the coppiced shoots of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees., belonging to family Lauraceae.

Geographical Sources

• Cinnamomum zeylanicum is widely cultivated in Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, West Indies, Brazil, Mauritius, Jamaica, and India.

Cultivation and Collection

• Cinnamon is cultivated by seed propagation method, about four to five seeds are placed in each hole at 2 m distance between the plants. The tree grows best in almost pure requiring only 1% of vegetable substance. It prefers shelter and constant rain of 75” to rainfall. Cinnamon is an evergreen tree grows from 20 to 30 feet high, has thick scabrous bark, strong branches. The field is kept away from weeds and the plant is coppiced few inches above the ground, leaving five to six straight shoots on them. The bark is loosened, and the longitudinal incisions are made using copper or brass knife. The barks arc stripped off and made into bundles and wrapped in Coir. The bundles are kept aside for about 2 hours to facilitate fermentation due to enzymatic action. The fermentation helps in the loosening of the outer layer up to pericycle. Each strip is taken and then they are scraped using a knife to separate the cork. The pieces are dried and they are categorized and packed one inside the other. Then compound quills are made by packing the small, quills into larger ones. They are cut into pieces of 1 m length and dried first under shade and later under sun. During drying, the original pale colour changes to brown due to the presence of some pholobatannins in the bark.

Characteristics

Cinnamon are either in single- or double-compound quills, with a size of 1 m length, 0.5 mm thickness, and 6 to 10 mm diameter. The outer surface has yellowish brown colour having longitudinal lines of pericyclic fibre and scars and holes representing the position of leaves or the lateral shoots. The inner surface is darker than the outer. Cinnamon has a fragrant perfume, taste aromatic and sweet.

Microscopy

The transverse section shows the presence of three to four layers of sclereids which are horseshoe shaped consisting of starch grains. The pericyclic fibres (6 to 15) are present on the outer margin. It consists of sieve tubes which are completely collapsed and are arranged tangentially; lignified phloem fibres, arranged as tangential rows of four to five cells; biseriate medullary rays with needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals; longitudinally elongated idioblast consisting of volatile oil; sub-rectangular parenchyma cells with starch grains and calcium oxalate crystals.

Chemical Constituents

Cinnamon contains about 10% of volatile oil, tannin, mucilage, calcium oxalate and sugar. Volatile oil contains 50 to 65% cinnamic aldehyde, along with 5 to 10% eugenol, terpene hydrocarbons and small quantities of ketones and alcohols.

Chemical Tests

• A drop of volatile oil is dissolved in 5 ml of alcohol and to it a drop of ferric chloride is added, A pale green colour is produced. Cinnamic aldehyde gives brown colour with ferric chloride, whereas eugenol gives blue colour. 

• The alcoholic extract is treated with phenylhydrazone hydrochloride, it produces red colour due to the formation of phenylhydrazone of cinnamic aldehyde.

Uses

• It is used as an alterative, aromatic, carminative, flavouring agent, analgesic, antiseptic, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, demulcent, digestive, expectorant, stomachic, diaphoretic, antibacterial, antifungal, etc. It stops vomiting, relieves flatulence and is given with chalk and as astringents for diarrhoea and haemorrhage of the womb. It is also used in the treatment of bronchitis, colds, palpitations, nausea, congestion, and liver problems.

Other Species

• Cinnamon cassia is often used as a substituent. C. culiawan is native of Amboyna and the bark has the flavour of clove, C. iners, Cassia burmarin, Saigon cinnamon, and C. nitidum are also used.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Rum Alaya gel, Koflet lozenges, Chyavan rash (Himalaya Drug Company), Garbhapal Ras, Sutsekhar Ras (Dabur), and Sage Staminex capsules (Sage Herbals).

CASSIA BARK

Synonym

• Chinese cinnamon, Cassia lignea, Bastard cinnamon, Cassia aromaticum, Canton cassia.

Biological Source

• Cassia is the dried stem bark of Cinnamomum cassia Blume., belonging to family Lauraceae.

Geographical Source

• It is Indigenous to China, Cochin and Assam. It is also cultivated in Ceylon, Japan, Sumatra, Java, Mexico, and America.

Cultivation

• The collection is done from cultivated plants. The trees are allowed to grow for 6 years and then the branches which are about 3 cm thick and 40 cm long are cut. The twigs and leaves are stripped off, then two longitudinal slits and three to four transverse ring cuts are made. The barks are stripped off. Then cork and some parts of outer cortex are peeled off by running a small plane over it. The bark is then dried, packed in bundles of 30 to 40 cm long weighing half kg and exported.

Characteristics

• The barks are either channelled pieces or as single quills; the size of drug ranging from 6 to 40 cm long, 1 to 2 cm in width, and 1 to 3 mm in thickness. The fractures are short. The outer surface is dark reddish-brown, smoothwith rather rough patches of grey cork. The inner, surface has fine striations. The flavour is more pungent, less sweet, and delicate and slightly bitter than that of cinnamon. The bark may be distinguished from that of cinnamon, because they are thicker, coarser, darker, and dull.

Microscopy

• Periderm is the outer layer; cork consists of few layers of both thin-walled and thick-walled cells. The inner thickwalled cells are lignified. Cortex consists of 10 to 15 layers of parenchyma with sclereids isolated or in groups and starch grains. A well-developed belt of sclereids occur between the primary and secondary phloem. Cassia has the lignified and pitted sclereids as its characteristic feature. The secondary phloem consist of phloem parenchyma which is thin-walled, containing abundant starch; isolated or group of phloem fibres embedded in phloem parenchyma and one- to three-celled medullary rays consisting of the starch and acicular raphides.

Chemical Constituents

Cassia bark yields 1 to 2% of volatile oil. It also has about 80 % cinnamyl acetate, cinnamic acid, caryophyllene, phenylpropyl acetate, orthocumaric aldehyde, coumarin, tannic acid, and starch. Eugenol is absent. The value of the drug depends on the percentage of cinnamic aldehyde present in it.

Uses

• Cassia is used as carminative, mildly astringent, stomachic, decreasing the milk secretion, and emmenagogue. It is used in uterine haemorrhage, menorrhagia, diarrhoea, nausea, and vomiting. The Cassia oil is a powerful germicide, local stimulant also prescribed in flatulent colic and gastric debility.

Chemical Test

• Cassia gives a deep blue black colour when a drop of tincture of iodine is mixed with fluid ounce of a decoction of the powder. 

• The cheaper Cassia can be distinguished by the greater quantity of mucilage present, which can be extracted by cold water.

• Cassia oil contains coumarin which gives strong greenblue fluorescence on addition of alkali.

Other Species

• Cassia burmanii Blume or the Java or Batavia cinnamon; they have a slightly aromatic odour and aromatic and mucilaginous taste; it can be distinguished by the presence of tabular crystals of calcium oxalate which are not found in other cinnamon barks. C. inners, C. lignea, C. sintok, C. obtusifolium, C. culilawan, C. loureirii, C. pauciflorum, C. inserta, C. notandum are some of the commonly available species of cinnamon.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Diakof, Koflex, Abana (Himalaya Drug Company), Shukra Matrika Bati (Baidyanath), and Madhushana (Jamuna Pharma).

CITRONELLA OIL

Synonyms

• Citronella grass, Nardus, Mana grass, Nard grass.

Biological Source

• It is the oil obtained by the steam distillation of fresh leaves of Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle, belonging to family Poaceae.

Geographical Source

• Citronella is native to Southeast Asia and grown commercially in Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Indonesia, and Java. In South Florida and southern California, it is grown as an ornamental.

Cultivation and Collection

• It is propagated by seed. It needs a long, warm season and may not survive cool damp winters. They are sown in summer at an altitude of 2,000–3,000 m above sea level. It requires an annual rainfall of not less than 750 mm. The crop requires proper irrigation and gets ready for harvest after eight months of growth.

Characteristics

• It is a tall, tufted perennial, clump-forming tropical grass with narrow leaf blades. They grow to a height of 5–6 ft. The leaves are greyish green, flat, about 3 ft long, and 1 inch wide. Citronella oil has a slightly sweet, lemony smell. It is pale greenish yellow in colour.

 Chemical Constituents

Citronella grass contains of volatile oil. The main chemical components of citronella oil are citronellic acid, geraniol, nerol, citral, borneol, camphene, citronellol, citronellal, dipentene, and limonene. It consist about 3.0% limonene; 35.3% citronellal; 12.0% citronellol, 24.9 % geraniol, 4.3% citronellyl acetate, 6.3% geranyl acetate, and 0.8% linalool.

Uses

• Citronella grass is the source of the commercial citronella oil, used in perfumery, as an insect repellent. Citronella oil is antiseptic, deodorant, tonic, insecticide, diaphoretic, parasitic, bactericidal, and stimulant. Citronella oil can be mixed with other vegetable oils and used in massage on skin for an insect repellent.

SAFFRON

Synonyms

• Crocus, Spanish, Saffron, French Saffron.

Biological Source

• Saffron is the dried stigma and style tops of Crocus sativus Linn., belonging to family Iridaceae.

Geographical Source

• The plant is native of south Europe and is found in Spain, France, Macedonia, Italy, Austria, China, Germany, Switzerland, and Iran. In India, the plant is cultivated in Kashmir.

Cultivation and Collection

• The plant is a small, perennial herb, 6–10 cm high. The corms are planted in July–August in well prepared soil. In the following year flowering takes place. Each corm is replaced by daughter corms. The flowers are collected early in the morning. The style of each flower is separated just below the stigma and dried by artificial heat for 30–45 min. The drug is coated and stored in dry place. About 1 kg of dried drug is collected from nearly 100,000 flowers. Saffron thrives well in cold regions with warm or subtropical climate. It requires a rich, well-drained, sandy, or loamy soil. The plant is propagated by bulbs. No manure is applied, or irrigation is given once the plants are established. The bulbs continue to live for 10 or 15 years, new bulbs being produced annually and the old ones rotting away. The plants flower in October–December, heavy rains during this period are harmful. Styles and stigmas are separated and dried in the sun or over low heat on sieves in earthen pots. The tripartite stigmas plucked from fleshly collected flowers and dried in the sun constitute Saffron of the best quantity.

Characteristics

Saffron is flattish-tubular, almost thread-like stigmas which are about 3 cm long with slender funnel having dentate or fimbricate rim. Colour is reddish-brown with some yellowish pieces of tops of styles. Odour is strong, peculiar, and aromatic; taste is aromatic and bitter.

Chemical Constituents

The drug contains volatile oil (1.3%), fixed oil, and wax. Crocin is the chief colouring principle in Saffron. On hydrolysis, it yields digentiobiose and the carotenoid pigment crocetin. Saffron possesses a number of carotenoid coloured compounds such as ester of crocin (a coloured glycoside), picrocrocin (a colourless bitter glycoside), crocetin (an aromatic compound), gentiobiose, α- and γ-carotenes, lycopene, zeaxanthin, crocin-1, crocin-2, crocin-3, crocin-4, mono- and digentiobiosyl and glucosyl esters of crocetin; β-sitosterol, ursolic, oleanolic, palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids (in bulbs).

Chemical Tests

• Add a drop of sulphuric acid to dry stigma. It turns blue, gradually changing to purple and finally purplish red. 

• Saffron imparts yellowish orange, brown colour with water.

Uses

• Saffron is used in fevers, cold, melancholia and enlargement of the liver; as colouring and flavouring agent, catarrhal, snake bite, cosmetic pharmaceutical preparations, and as spice. Saffron has stimulant, stomachic, tonic, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, sedative, and spasmolytic properties.

Adulterant

• Saffron is frequently adulterated with styles, anthers and parts of carolla of Saffron. Exhausted Saffron, flowers, and floral parts of some Compositae like Calendula species and Carthamus tinctorius, com silk, and various materials coloured with coal tar dyes are also used as adulterants. Water, oil, or glycerin is added to increase the weight. Coke Saffron of commerce often contains safflower florets with adhesive sugary substances.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Tentex forte, Speman forte (Himalaya Drug Company), J.P. Nikhar oil (Jamuna Pharma), and Amyron (Aimil Pharmaceuticals).

VOLATILE OILS CONTAINING KETONES

Ketones present in volatile oils are divided into 

• monocyclic terpene ketones, for example, menthone, carvone, piperitone, pulegone and diosphenol; 

• Dicyclic ketones, including camphor, fenchone, and thujone; and 

• acyclic ketone, for example, artemisia ketone and tagetone.

The important drugs in this category are Camphor, Caraway, Dill, Fennel, and Jatamansi.

CAMPHOR

Synonyms

• Gum Camphor, Japan Camphor.

Biological Source

• Camphor is a solid ketone, obtained from the volatile oil of Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees et Eber, belonging to family Lauraceae. Synthetic camphor, which is optically inactive, is prepared from turpentine and would probably have completely replaced the natural product.

Geographical Source

• The plant is a big tree native to Eastern Asia, It is found widely in Mediterranean region, Sri Lanka, Egypt, South Africa, Java, Sumatra, Brazil, Jamaica, Florida, Formosa, Japan, South China, India, and California. In India, the tree is planted in gardens up to 1,300 m height in the Northwest Himalayas. It is successfully cultivated at Dehradun, Saharanpur, Calcutta, Nilgiris, and Mysore.

Preparation

• Old trees possess high concentration of Camphor. The small wood chips are treated with steam. Camphor is sublimed and liquid volatile oil passed away into the receiver. Excess of Camphor is obtained from the volatile oil. Camphor is purified by treating it with lime and charcoal and resublimation into large chambers to form flowers of camphor. The collected Camphor is made into blocks by hydraulic pressure.
• The specific rotation of natural camphor is +41° to +43°. The synthetic camphor is optically inactive.

Characteristics

• Natural Camphor is colourless translucent mass with crystalline fracture, rhombohedral crystals from alcohol, cubic crystals by-melting and chilling. Odour is characteristic, and taste is pungent and aromatic which is followed by cold sensation. It evaporates at room temperature and pressure, m.p. 180°, very volatile in steam. At 25°, 1 g dissolves in about 800 ml water (giving a colloidal solution), in 1 ml alcohol, 1 ml ether, 0.5 ml chloroform, 0.4 ml benzene, 0.4 ml acetone, 1.5 ml of turpentine oil, and 0.5 ml glacial acetic acid. Camphor has a peculiar tenacity and cannot be powdered in a mortar unless it is moistened with an organic solvent.

Chemical Constituents

Camphor oil contains camphor, cineole, pinene, camphene, phellandrene, limonene, and diterpenes. Camphor is entirely a monoterpenic ketone. Its basic carbon framework is related to bofneol.

Uses

• Camphor is used externally as a rubefacient, counterirritant and internally as a stimulant, carminative and antiseptic. It is a topical antipruritic and antiinfective, used as 1–3% in skin medicaments and in cosmetic. It is also used to manufacture some plastics, celluloid, in lacquers, varnishes, explosives, pyrotechnics, as moth repellent, and in embalming fluids

Allied drugs

• Borneo camphor, obtained from Dryobalanops aromatica (Dipterocarpaceae), and Ngai camphor, obtained from Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae), are used in China and Japan. In California levorotatory camphor is produced from species of Artemisia (Asteraceae).

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Ophthacare, Pilex, Rumalaya (Himalaya Drug Company) and Dabur balm (Dabur).

CARAWAY

Synonyms

• Caraway fruits, Fructus carvi, Carum, Caraway Seed.

Biological Source

• Caraway consists of the dried ripe fruits of Carum carvi Linn., belonging to family Umbelliferae.

Geographical Source

• It is cultivated widely in northern and central parts of Europe, Turkey in Asia, India, and North Africa. It is also available in Canada, the United States, Morocco, Germany, Russia, Norway, and Sweden.

History

• The use of caraway is well-known in classic days and it is believed that its use originated with the ancient Arabs, the ancient Arabs called the ‘seeds’ Karawya and so the origin of our word Caraway and the Latin name Cam, According to Pliny the name Carvi was derived from Caria, in Asia Minor, where according to him the plant was originally found. In old Spanish the name of caraway occurs as Alcaravea. The use of caraway was also quite popular during the Middle Ages and in Shakespeare’s times.

Cultivation

• The plant is an erect biennial herb. It prefers loamy soil. About five seeds are sown in March or April in drills, 1 ft apart. The plants when strong enough are thinned out to about 8 inches in the rows. Proper manure and weeding is done. When the oldest fruits are mature and ripe, the plant is cut and the Caraways are separated by thrashing. They are then dried either on trays in the sun or by very gentle heat over a stove with occasional shaking,

Characteristics

The fruits which are incorrectly called seeds are laterally compressed, translucent, slightly curved and somewhat horny in nature. They are yellowish brown in colour with five distinct ridges. The fruits are of 4 to 7 mm long, 1 mm broad, and thick. They evolve a pleasant, aromatic odour when bruised and have an agreeable taste.

Microscopy

Dorsal region consist of four vittae and the commissural surface has two vittae and a carpophore. The epicarp has polygonal tubular cells along with few stomata which are covered with cuticle. The mesocarp consists of rounded parenchyma cells, with scattered sclereids. The endocarp has elongated sub-rectangular cells, whereas the endospermis is made of thick-walled cellulosic parenchyma cells consisting of oil globules, calcium oxalate crystals, and aleurone grains.

Chemical Constituents

Caraway grown in more northerly altitudes are richer in essential oil than that grown in southern regions and similarly if caraway is grown in full sun a greater percentage and richer oil is obtained. It has 4–7% volatile oil which consists of about 60% carvone alone with dihydrocarvone, carveol, carvacrol, and terpene limonene. The chief constituent of the oil is a hydrocarbon termed carvene and an oxygenated oil carvol.

Uses

• Both fruit and oil possess aromatic, stimulant, flavouring agent and carminative. It is recommended in dyspepsia, as a tonic; as stomachic, for flatulent indigestion, as a excellent vehicle for children’s medicine and also as a spice.

Allied Drug

• Cuminum cyminum is commonly used in many parts of country. The volatile oil content is only about 3 to 4%.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Gripe water (Himalaya Drug Company) and Sage Baby oil (Sage Herbals).

CORIANDER

Synonyms

• Fructus coriandri, Coriander fruits, Cilantro, Chinese parsley.

Biological Source

Coriander consists of dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum Linn., belonging to family Umbelliferae.

Geographical Sources

• Cultivated in Central and Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, Hungary, in Africa and India. In India it is cultivated in Maharashtra, U.P., Rajasthan, Jammu, and Kashmir. It is also found in a antiwild state in the east of England.

Cultivation and Collection

• The coriander seeds are sown in dry weather either in March or in early autumn. Shallow drills, about 1/2 inch deep and 8 inches apart are made and the seeds are sown in it, the rate of germination is slow. The plants are annual herb, which grow to a height of 1 to 3 feet high, slender, and branched. The flowers are in shortly stalked umbels with five to ten rays. The seeds fall as soon as ripe and when the seeds are ripe (about August), the disagreeable odour is produced. Plant is then cut down with sickles; the fruits are collected and dried. During drying fruits develop aromatic smell and the unpleasant odour disappears.

Characteristics

The fruit is a Cremo carp, subspherical in shape, Yellowish-brown in colour. The size of the fruit is 3 to 4 mm in diameter, with aromatic odour, and spicy, aromatic taste.

Microscopy

• The transverse section of coriander shows the presence of a dorsal surface and a commissural surface. The dorsal surface consists of two vittae and a carpophore. The dorsalsurface has five primary ridges and four secondary ridges. The epicarp consists of a single row of small thick-walled cells with calcium oxalate crystals. The mesocarp has an outer loosely arranged tangentially elongated parenchyma cells and the middle layer consisting of sclerenchyma. The middle layer is again divided into; the outer region of sclerenchyma is represented by longitudinally running fibres, whereas the inner region has tangentionally running fibres. The vascular bundles are present below the primary ridges. The inner layer has polygonal, irregularly arranged parenchyma cells. The endocarp has the parquetry arrangement. In the testa it has single-layered, yellowish cells, and the endosperm is thick, polygonal, colourless parenchyma with fixed oil and aleurone grains.

Chemical Constituents

Coriander consist of about 1% of volatile oil the chief volatile components are D-(+)-linalool (coriandrol), along with other constituents like, borneol, p-cymene, camphor, geraniol, limonene, and alpha-pinenes. The fruits also contain fatty oil and hydroxycoumarins. The fatty oils include acids of petroselic acid, oleic acid, linolenic acid, whereas the hydroxycoumarins include the umbelliferone and scopoletine.

 

Uses

• Aromatic, carminative, stimulant, alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic and flavouring agent. It is also used as refrigerant, tonic, appetizer, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and stomachic. Coriander can be applied externally for rheumatism and painful joints. The infusion of decoction of dried fruit of cardamom is useful for the treatment of sore-throat, indigestion, vomiting, flatulence, and other intestinal disorders.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Cystone (Himalaya Drug Company), Bilwadi churna (Baidyanath), and Sage massage oil (Sage Herbals).

DILL

Synonyms

• Fructus anethi, Anethum, European dill.

Biological Source

• Dill consists of the dried ripe fruits of Anethum graveolens Linn., belonging to family Umbelliferae.

Geographical Source

• It is native of the Mediterranean region and Southern Russia. Also grown in Italy, Spain and Portugal.

Cultivation and Collection

• Dill is a hardy annual crop which grows ordinarily from 2 to 2.5 feet high. The seeds are sown in early spring in drills 10 inches apart on soil with exhaustive fertility. The seeds are thinned out to leave 8 to 10 inches room each way, and the weeds are removed timely. The plant has more than one stalk and its long, spindle-shaped root, growth is upright, its stems smooth, shiny and hollow and in mid summer it bears flat terminal umbels with numerous yellow flowers. The mowing of the seeds starts as the lower seeds begin; with proper care taken not to loose any of the seeds due to shaking. The loose sheaves are built into stacks of about 20 sheaves, tied together. In hot weather, thrashing is donein the field, spreading the sheaves on a large canvas sheet and beating them. The seeds are finally dried by spreading out on trays in the sun or on moderate heat of a stove with occasional shaking.

Characteristics

Dill fruits are oval, compressed, winged with 4 mm in length, about one-tenth inch wide and 1 mm thick. The fruits are yellowish or slightly brown having with three longitudinal ridges on the back and three dark lines or oil cells (vittae) between them and two on the flat surface. The taste of the fruits somewhat resembles caraway (aromatic and characteristic). The seeds are small in size, flat and lighter than caraway and have a pleasant aromatic odour.

Microscopy

Dill has six vittae, of which four are present on the outer surface and two on the commissural surface. Five vascular strands are present in each of the primary ridge. Thin-walled epicarp is present and the mesocarp has rounded parenchyma. The endosperm has thick-walled, elongated cells with parquetry arrangement. Testa is brown in colour and the endosperm has thick-wailed cellulosic parenchymatous cells with aleuron grains and oil globules.

Chemical Constituents

The fruit yields about 3.5% of the essential oil, about 20% of fixed oil and protein. The essential oil is an aromatic liquid consisting of a mixture of paraffin hydrocarbon and 40 to 60% of d-carvone along with D-limonene and other terpenes.

Uses

• Dill fruit and oil of Dill possess stimulant, aromatic, carminative, and stomachic, with considerable medicinal value. Oil of Dill is used in mixtures, preparation of Dill Water is used in the flatulence of infants and also as a vehicle for children’s medicine. Oil of Dill is employed for perfuming soaps.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Woodward’s Gripe water.

FENNEL

Synonyms 

• Fructus foeniculli, Fennel fruit, Fenkel, Florence fennel, Sweet fennel, Wild fennel, Large fennel.

Biological Source

• Fennel consists of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare Miller., belonging to family Umbelliferae.

Geographical Source

• Fennel is indigenous to Mediterranean countries and Asia; it is largely cultivated in France, Saxony, Japan, Galicia, Russia, India, and Persia.

History

• Fennel was well-known to the Ancients, and it was also cultivated by the ancient Romans for its aromatic fruits and edible shoots. It is reported that during third-century B.C. Hippocrates prescribed fennel for the treatment of infant colic, and later on after 400 years Dioscorides called fennel as an appetite suppressant and recommended the seeds for nursing mothers to increase milk secretion. Pliny suggested that fennel cured eye problems and jaundice. Fennel seeds are commonly taken after meals to prevent gas and stomach upset. The use of fennel shoots and seeds are mentioned in ancient record of Spanish agriculture dating A.D. 961.

Cultivation and Collection

• Fennel, a hardy, beautiful plant, perennial, umbelliferous herb, with yellow flowers and feathery leaves, grows wild in many parts of the world. Fennel is propagated by seeds during April in ordinary soil. Fennel requires abundance sun light and is adapted to dry in sunny situations, it does not call for heavily manured ground but it will yield more on well-drained calcareous soil. About 4 1/2 to 5 lb of seed are sown per acre, either in drills or 15 inches apart, evenly covered with soil. The plants grow to a height of 2 m, erect and cylindrical and take enough space in branching. Most of the branches bearing leaves cut into the very finest ofsegments. The plant bears fruits in the second year and the bright golden flowers, flat terminal umbels bloom in July and August. The fruits are collected by cutting the stems in September, when the fruits are ripe. The stems are dried on sheaves under sun and later beaten to separate the fruits.

Characteristics

The fruit is an entire cremocarps with pedicels, oval-oblong and 5 to 10 mm long, 2 to 4 mm broad. It has greenishbrown to yellowish brown colour with five prominent primary ridges and a bifid stylopod at the apex.

Microscopy

• The transverse section of mericarp region of fennel shows two prominent surfaces, the dorsal and the commisuralsurface. The commisural surface has a carpophore and two vittae, and the dorsal surface has a total of five ridges. The mericarp is divided into pericarp, consisting of the epicarp and mesocarp; the testa and the endocarp. Epicarp consists of polygonal cells of epidermis which are tangentially elongated and covered by the cuticle. Mesocarp has parenchyma cells with five bicollateral vascular bundles; below each primary ridge a lignified reticulate parenchyma surrounds the vascular bundles. There are four vittae on dorsal surface and two vittae on commisural or the ventral surface. Inner Epidermis or Endocarp shows parquetry arrangement (a group of four to five cells arranged parallelly at acute angles with groups of similar cells in different direction). Testa is a single-layered tangentially elongated cell with yellowish colour. Endosperm consists of thick-walled, wide polyhedral, colourless cells. Cells contain fixed oil, aleurone grains, and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate.

Chemical Constituents

The best varieties of Fennel contain 4 to 5% of volatile oil. The primary constituents of volatile oil are 50 to 60% of anethole, a phenolic ester; and 18 to 22% of fenchone, a ketone. Fenchone is chemically a bicyclic monoterpene which is a colourless liquid and the odour and taste is pungent and camphoraceous. The oil of Fennel has β-pinene, anisic acid, phellandrine, and anisic aldehyde. Fennel also contains about 20% fixed oil and 20% proteins.

Uses

• Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic, diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a digestive, pectoral, and flavouring agent. Anethole may have estrogen-like activity and inhibit spasms in smooth muscles. Fennel can increase production of bile, used in the treatment of infant colic, to promote menstruation in women, can increase lactation, act as antipyretic, antimicrobial and antiinflammatory.

Adulterants

• Fennel is generally adulterated with exhausted fennel and due to improper caring during harvesting they are also adulterated with sand, dirt, stem, weed seeds, etc in which part of volatile oil is removed either by extraction with alcohol or steam distillation. Fruits exhausted by water or steam are darker in colour, contain less essential oil and sink in water, but those exhausted by alcohol still hold 1 to 2% of oil in them.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Abana, Shahicool, Anxocare (Himalaya Drug Company), Aptikid (Lubin Herbal Laboratory), Jalifaladi bati (Baidyanath), and Hajmola, Janum Gunti (Dabur).

JATAMANSI

Synonyms

• Indian spike nard, Nard.

Biological Source

• Jatamansi consists of dried rhizomes of Nardostachys jatamansi D.C., belonging to family Valerianaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is mainly found in the Alpine Himalayas at an altitude of 3,000–5,000 m. It is grown from Nepal to Sikkim and in Bhutan.

Cultivation and Collection

• Jatamansi is a perennial herb propagated by cuttings of the underground parts. The favourable altitude for the luxurious growth of the plant is 3,000–5,000 m. The rhizomes are collected from the wild-grown plants only. The plant is about 10 to 60 cm in height and with stout and long woody root stocks. The leaves of the plant are sessile, very few, and oblong-ovate in shape. Flowers are rosy, slightly pink or blue in dense cymose. 1,300 kg/ha of drug is produced after cultivation.

Characteristics

The rhizomes are dark grey in colour and are crowned with reddish-brown tufted fibres, it has a highly agreeable and aromatic odour and acrid, slightly bitter and aromatic taste. The rhizomes are 2.5 to 7.5 cm in length and having elongated and cylindrical shape. The fibres present on the rhizomes are the remaining of leaf bases. Rhizomes break easily and internally they are reddishbrown in colour.

Chemical Constituents

Jatamansi contains 1 to 2% of pale-yellow volatile oil, resin, sugar, starch and bitter principle, an alcohol and its isovaleric ester. It also contains jatamansic acid and ketones jatamansone and nardostachone.

Chemical Test

• Add 2 g of powder to 5 ml of 80% alcohol and shake for ten minutes and filter it. Place one drop of filtrate on filter paper, dry it, and examine under UV light. It shows bluish white fluorescence.

Uses

• Jatamansi is used as a sedative, antispasmodic, diuretic, emmenagogue, and stomachic. It is stimulant in small doses and also useful in epilepsy, hysteria, and palpitation of heart. The oil possess antiarrhythmic activity and also used as a flavouring agent in the preparation of medicinal oil. The oil is used as hair tonic, since it is reported to promote the growth of hair and it also imparts blackness to the hair.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Abana, Rumalaya gel, Mentat, Anxocare (Himalaya Drug Company), and Dasmularishta, Mahamarichadi tail (Dabur).

ANISE

Synonyms

• Anise, Anise fruits, Aniseed, Sweet cumin, Star anise, Chinese anise.

Biological Source

• Anise consists of dried ripe fruits of Pimpinella anisum Linn., belonging to family Umbelliferae.

Geographical Source

• Anise is native of Egypt, Greece, Crete, and Asia Minor and at present is cultivated in European countries like Spain, North Africa, Italy, Malta, Russia, Germany, Bulgaria, and Mexico.

History

• Anise has been in use since the fourteenth century, The ancient Greeks, including Hippocrates, prescribed Anise for coughs. In Virgil’s time, the Ancient Romans used Anise in a special cake (Mustacae) which prevents indigestion.

• Historically, Anise was used due to the flavor, its ability to promote digestion; it acted as an aphrodisiac, for infant colic, etc. Early English herbalists recommended Anise for hiccups, for promoting lactation, in headache, as breath freshener, in asthma, bronchitis, insomnia, nausea, lice, infant colic, cholera, and even in cancer. Anise is one of the herbs that were supposed to avert the Evil Eye.

Cultivation and Collection

• The prorogation is done using seeds; the seeds are sown in dry, light soil, on a warm, sunny border during early April. The plant flowers in July and ripen in autumn. Once the fruits are ripened the plants are cut down and the seeds thrashed out.

Characteristics

Anise is a delicate, white-flowered umbelliferous annual herb which grows to about 18 inches high, with secondary feather-like leaflets of bright green colour. Anise is an entire cremocarp and the pedicel is attached. It has greyish brown colour, ovoid-conical shape. The size of fruit varies from 3 to 5 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm broad. Due to the presence of short, conical epidermal trichomes the fruits exhibit a rough texture. It has sweet and aromatic odour and taste.

Microscopy

Anise has two vittae on the ventral surface and about 20 to 40 vittae on the dorsal surface. Below the primary ridges it has the vascular strands, the epicarp consists of short, conical, epidermal trichomes. Mesocarp has rounded parenchyma cells showing the parquetry arrangement. Testa is single-layered cell with thin, brown-coloured cells, abundant oil globules, and aleuron grains are present in the endosperm region.

Chemical Constituents

Anise fruit consist of 2.5 to 3.5% of a fragrant, syrupy, volatile oil. The chief aromatic component of the essential oil is trans-anethole, present to about 90% along with estragole, anisic acid, anisaldehyde, anise ketone, β-caryophylline, linalool; polymers of anethole, dianethole, and photoanethole. It consists of coumarins (umbelliferone, scopoletin), flavonoid glycosides (rutin, isovitexin and quercetin), and phenylpropanoids. Other constituents of the fruit are lipids, fatty acids, sterols, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Uses

• Anise is used as expectorant, carminative, aromatic, antimicrobial, and antispasmodic. It can enhance the memory, increases lactation, it is used in the treatment of bronchitis, asthma, relieves menopausal discomforts, in whooping cough, externally in scabies, flatulent colic of infants, overcomes nausea, and as a digestive.

CUMMIN/CUMIN

Synonyms

• Jira, cumin fruit.

Biological Source

• It consists of dried ripe fruits of Cuminum cyminum Linn., belonging to family Umbelliferae.

Geographical Source

• It is indigenous to Nile territory. It is cultivated in Morocco, Sicily, India, Syria, and China. In India, except Assam and West Bengal, it is cultivated in all states. About 90% of the world production is from India, and most of it comes from Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Characteristics

It is brown-coloured, ridges are light in colour, characteristic and aromatic odour and having characteristic and aromatic taste. It is 4–6 mm in length and about 2 mm thick, elongated, and tapering at both ends. Each mericarp is having fine longitudinal ridges. Alternating with these are secondary ridges which are flat and bear conspicuous emergences.

Microscopy

• The transverse section of mericarp exhibits an oily endosperm and six vittae, of which four are on dorsal surface and two on ventral surface. The large pluriserial hairs, characteristic to it, are present.

Chemical Constituents

Cumin fruits contain 2.5–4% volatile oil, 10% fixed oil, and proteins. Volatile oil mainly consists of 30–50% cuminaldehyde, small quantities of α-pinene, β-pinene, phellandrene, cuminic alcohol, hydrated cuminaldehyde, and hydro-cuminine.

Uses

• Cumin fruits are used as carminative, stimulant and in diarrhoea. The oil of cumin is used to flavor curries and other culinary preparations, confectionary, beverages, and cordials.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Lukol (Himalaya Drug Company), Hajmola (Dabur), K.G. Tone (Aimil Pharmaceuticals), and M2-tone syrup (Charak Pharma Pvt. Ltd.).

VOLATILE OIL CONTAINING PHENOL

• Two kinds of phenols occur in volatile oils: those that are present naturally and those that are produced as the result of destructive distillation of certain plant products. Eugenol, thymol, and carvacrol are important phenols found in volatile oils. Eugenol occurs in Clove oil, Myrcia oil, and other oils; thymol and carvacrol occur in Thyme oil, Ajowan oil, and creosol; and guaiacol are present in creosote and pine tar. The more important drugs containing phenol volatile oils are Thyme, Clove, Myrcia oil, Creosote, Ajowan, Tulsi, Pine tar, and Juniper tar.

AJOWAN

Biological Source

• Ajowan is the dried ripe seeds of Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, belonging to family Apiaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is a native of Egypt and grown through out India, Mediterranean region and in south-west Asian countries such as Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

Cultivation and Collection

• Ajowan is an erect, glabrous or minutely pubescent, branched annual herb, up to 90 cm tall. The crop is grown in cold weather, both as a dry crop and under irrigation. It grows on all kinds of soil, but does well on loams or clayey loams. Seeds are sown broadcast in the moist soil from September to November. Germination takes in 5–15 days, depending upon climatic conditions. First irrigation should be light. The flowering takes place in about two months. The harvesting period is February or March. The fruits become ready for harvesting when the flower heads turn brown. The plants then pulled out by the roots and dried. The dried fruits are separated by carefully rubbing with hands or feet.

Characteristics

The drug occurs as entire cremocarps or separated mericarps. Cremocarps are ovoid-cordate to ovate, laterally compressed; 1.7–3.0 mm long; 1.5–2.4 mm broad, dirty yellow to yellowish brown in colour and half to two-thirds apical portion has slight purplish tinge. At the top of the cremocarp is a bifid stylopod surrounded by five minute sepals. Each mericarp shows five light-coloured ridges and is covered with light yellow protuberances. The drug has an agreeable odour and aromatic and warming taste.

Chemical Constituents

• Ajowan contains an essential oil (2–3.5%), protein (17.1%), and fat (21.8%). Ajowan oil is a colourless or brownish yellow liquid possessing a characteristic odour of thymol and a sharp taste. The principal constituents of the oil are phenol, mainly thymol (35–60%), carvacrol, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, α-, and β-pinenes and dipentene. The fatty oil is composed of palmitic, petroselinic, oleic, linoleic, and 5,6-octa-decanoic acids.

Uses

• Ajowan is widely used as a spice in curries; in pickles, certain types of biscuits, confectionery, and in beverages. It is valued for its antispasmodic, stimulant, tonic, and carminative properties. It is given in flatulence, atonic dyspepsia, diarrhoea, and cholera. It is used most frequently in conjunction with asafoetida, myrobalans and rocksalt. Ajowan is also effective in relaxed sore throat and in bronchitis, and often constitutes an ingredient of cough mixture. Ajowan oil is used as an antiseptic, aromatic, carminative, for perfuming disinfectant soaps, and as an insecticide. The oil is useful as an expectorant in emphysema, bronchial pneumonia and some other respiratory ailments.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Aptikid (Lubin Herbal Laboratory).

TULSI

Synonyms

• Sacred basil, Holy basil.

Biological Source

• Tulsi consists of fresh and dried leaves of Ocimum sanctum Linn., belonging to family Labiatae.

Geographical Source

• It is a herbaceous, much branched annual plant found throughout India, it is considered as sacred by Hindus. The plant is commonly cultivated in garden and also grown near temples. It is propagated by seeds. Tulsi, nowadays, is cultivated commercially for its volatile oil.

Characteristics

It is much branched small herb and 30 to 75 cm in height. All parts of tulsi are used in medicine, especially fresh and dried leaves. Leaves are oblong, acute with entire or serrate margin, pubescent on both sides and minutely gland-dotted, The leaves are green in colour with aromaticflavour and slightly pungent taste. Flowers are purplish in colour in the form of racemes. Nutlets are subglobose, slightly compressed, pale brown or red in colour. Seeds are reddish-black and subglobose.

 

 Microscopy

Tulsi leaf is dorsiventral. Stomata are of diacytic type, particularly abundant on lower surface. Epidermal cells are wavy walled with thin cuticle. A single layer of elongated palisade cells is present below upper epidermis. Mesophyll consists of four to six layers of spongy parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces and oil glands. Leaf bears both covering and glandular trichomes; covering trichomes, uniseriate, multicellular and often very long (100–400 μ). Glandular trichomes are sessile with radiate head composed of eight cells with common cuticle forming a bladder, typical labiate type trichomes. A few glandular trichomes with unicellular stalk and a spherical unicellular head also occur. The midrib region shows collenchymatous cells below both upper and lower epidermis. Xylem bundles are arranged in an arc. The phloem is arranged on the dorsal side of xylem.

Chemical Constituents

Tulsi leaves contain bright, yellow coloured and pleasant volatile oil (0.1 to 0.9%). The oil content of the drug varies depending upon the type, the place of cultivation and season of its collection. The oil is collected by steam distillation method from the leaves and flowering tops. It contains approximately 70% eugenol, carvacrol (3%), and eugenol-methyl-ether (20%). It also contains caryophyllin. Seeds contain fixed oil with good drying properties. The plant is also reported to contain alkaloids, glycosides, saponin, tannins, an appreciable amount of vitamin C and traces of maleic, citric, and tartaric acid.

Uses

• The fresh leaves, its juice and volatile oil are used for various purposes. The oil is antibacterial and insecticidal. The leaves are used as stimulant, aromatic, spasmolytic, and diaphoretic. The juice is used as an antiperiodic and as a constituent of several preparations for skin diseases and also to cure earache. Infusion of the leaves is used as a stomachic. The drug is a good immunomodulatory agent.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Abana, Diabecon, Diakof, Koflet (Himalaya Drug Company), Respinova (Lupin Herbal Laboratory), Amulcure (Aimil Pharmaceuticals), Nomarks (Nyle Herbals), Sualin (Hamdard), and Kofol syrup (Charak Pharma Pvt. Ltd.).

CLOVE

Synonyms

• Clove buds, Clove flowers.

Biological Source

• Clove consists of the dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus Thumb., belonging to family Myrtaceae.

Geographical Source

• Clove tree is a native of Indonesia. It is cultivated mainly in Islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Brazil, Amboiana, and Sumatra. It is also found in Madagascar, Penang, Mauritius, West Indies, India, and Ceylon.

Cultivation and Collection

• Clove tree is evergreen and 10 to 20 m in height. The plant requires moist, warm and equable climate with welldistributed rainfall. It is propagated by means of seeds. The seeds are sown in well-drained suitable soil at a distance of about 25 cm. The plants should be protected against pests and plant diseases. Initially it has to be protected from sunlight by growing inside a green house or by constructing frames about 1 m high and covering them with banana leaves. As the banana leaves decay gradually more and more sunlight falls on the young seedlings and the seeds are able to bear full sunlight when they are about 9 months old. The seedlings when become 1 m high, they are transplanted into open spaces at a distance of 6 m just before the rainy season. The young clove trees are protected from sun even for a longer period by planting banana trees in between. The drug can be collected every year starting from 6 years old till they are 70 years old.

• Clove buds change the colour as they mature. At the start of the rainy season long greenish buds appear which change to a lovely rosy peach colour and as the corolla fades the calyx turns yellow and then red. The buds are collected during dry weather in the month of August to December. The collection is done either by climbing on the tree or by using some ladders or with the help of mobile platforms. In some places the trees are even beaten using bamboo sticks for the collection of the bud. The drugs which are collected are then separated from the stalks and then placed on coconut mats for drying under sun. The buds loose about 70% of its weight, whereas drying and change their colour to dark reddish-brown. The dried clove is graded and packed.

Characterisitics

• Clove is reddish-brown in colour, with an upper crown and a hypanthium. The hypanthium is sub-cylindrical and tapering at the end. The hypanthium is 10 to 13 mm long, 4 mm wide, and 2 mm thick and has schizolysigenous oil glands and an ovary which is bilocular. The Crown region consists of the calyx, corolla, style and stamens. Calyx has four thick sepals. Corolla is also known as head, crown or cap; it is doineshaped and has four pale yellow coloured petals which are imbricate, immature, and membranous. The ovary consists of abundant ovules. Clove has strong spicy, aromatic odour, and pungent and aromatic taste.

Microscopy

The transverse section should be taken through the short upper portion which has the bilocular ovary and also through the hypanthium region. The transverse section through the hypanthium shows the following characters. It has a single layer of epidermis covered with thick cuticle. The epidermis has ranunculaceous stomata. The cortex has three distinct region: the peripheral region with two to three layers of schizolysigenous oil glands, embedded in parenchymatous cells. The middle layer has few layers of bicollateral vascular bundle. In the inner portion it has loosely arranged aerenchyma cells. The central cylinder contains thick-walled parenchyma with a ring of bicollateral vascular bundles and abundant sphaeraphides. The T.S. through ovary region shows the presence of an ovary with numerous ovules in it.

Chemical Constituents     

Clove contains 14–21% of volatile oil. The other constituents present are the eugenol, acetyl eugenol, gallotannic acid, and two crystalline principles; α- and β- caryophyllenes, methyl furfural, gum, resin, and fibre. Caryophyllin is odourless component and appears to be a phytosterol, whereas eugenol is a colourless liquid. Clove oil has 60–90% eugenol, which is the cause of its anesthetic and antiseptic properties.

Chemical Tests 

• To a thick section through hypanthium of clove add 50% potassium hydroxide solution; it produces needleshaped crystals of potassium eugenate.

• A drop of clove oil is dissolved in 5 ml alcohol and a drop of ferric chloride solution is added; due to the phenolic OH group of eugenol, a blue colour is seen. 

• To a drop of chloroform extract of clove add a drop of 30% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide saturatedwith sodium bromide; Needle and pear shaped crystals of sodium eugenate arranged in rosette are produced immediately

 Uses

• Clove is used as an antiseptic, stimulant, carminative, aromatic, and as a flavouring agent. It is also used as anodyne, antiemetic. Dentists use clove oil as an oral anesthetic and to disinfect the root canals. Clove kills intestinal parasites and exhibits broad antimicrobial properties against fungi and bacteria and so it is used in the treatment of diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other digestive ailments. Clove oil can stop toothache. A few drops of the oil in water will stop vomiting, eating cloves is said to be aphrodisiac. Eugenol is also used as local anaesthetic in small doses. The oil stimulates peristalsis; it is a strong germicide, also a stimulating expectorant in bronchial problems. The infusion and Clove water are good vehicles for alkalies and aromatics.

Adulterants

• The clove is generally adulterated by exhausted clove, clove fruits, blown cloves and clove stalks. The exhausted cloves are those from which volatile oil is either partially or completely removed by distillation. Exhausted cloves are darker in colour and can be identified as they float on freshly boiled and cooled water. Clove fruits are dark brown in colour and have less volatile oil content. These can be identified by the presence of starch present in the seed of the fruit. Blown Cloves are entirely developed clove flowers from which corolla and stamens get separated. While separation, sometimes the stalks are incompletely removed and the percentage of volatile oil in clove stalk is only 5%. As clove stalks contain prism type of calcium oxalate crystals and thick-walled stone cells which are absent in clove the clove stalk can also be detected.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Himsagar tail (Dabur).

VOLATILE OIL CONTAINING ETHER

• A number of phenolic ethers occur in volatile oils, for example, anethole from Anise and Fennel, safrole from sassafras and Nutmeg. Derivatives of safrole are also often found in volatile oils; for example, myristicin (methoxysafrole) in nutmeg.

NUTMEG

Synonyms

• Semen myristicae, Myristica, Nux moschata, Myristica aromata.

Biological Source

• Nutmeg is the kernel of the dried ripe seed of Myristica fragrans Houtten., belonging to family Myristicaceae.

Geographical Source

• A native of Molucca islands in Indonesia. It is also cultivated in West Indies, Banda Islands, Archipelago, Malayan, Sumatra, and in Guiana.

Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation

• Nutmeg grows well in well-drained loamy soil, in hot and humid climate but requires protection from wind. It is cultivated using seeds and they are protected from wind using banana plantation in between. Nutmeg is a dioecious tree bearing male and female flowers separately. As the drug is obtained only from female plant, the male trees are removed with a proportion of 1:7 (one male for seven female plants). The tree is about 25 feet high, has a greyish-brown smooth bark, abounding in a yellow juice. The branches spread in whorls. Male flowers have three to five more on a peduncle, female are similar to that of the male but their pedicel is solitary. The tree does not flower till it is nine years old, but once it starts to flower it continues to do so for 75 years without any attention. The fruits are harvested twice or thrice a year, that is, in July or August the next in November and finally in March or April. The fruit is collected in the morning by means of a barb attached to a long stick. Fruit is a pendulous, globose drupe, consisting of a pericarp with light yellow colour with the mace arillus covering the hard endocarp. The arillus are stripped off and forms a mace. The arillus when fresh is a brilliant scarlet and when dry becomes more horny, brittle, and yellowish-brown in colour. Seeds are dried in trays kept at a height of about 3 m on charcoal fire during night, and during day they are kept under sun to have a continuous drying process. The testa is removed by cracking the seeds using a wooden mallet and the kernels are removed. The drug is graded and packed.

Characteristics

Nutmeg is the kernels consisting of outer and inner perisperm, endosperm and embryo; it has an ovoid or broadly elongated shape with a size of 2 to 3 cm length and 1.5 to 2 cm wide. The kernels are greyish brown in colour, with numerous reddish-brown spots on them. One end of the nutmeg has a small depression indicating the position of micropyle and slightly by its side it has the position of hilum. The line of raphe extends to opposite end of the kernel to the depression called chalaza. The embryo is present in a small cavity inside the endosperm.

 Chemical Constituents

Nutmeg contains of 5 to 15% volatile oil, lignin, stearin, starch, gum, colouring matter, and 0.08% of an acid substance. The volatile oil contains clemicine, myristicin, geraniol, borneol, pinene, camphene, and dipentene. It also contains eugenol, safrol, p-cymene and isoeugenol in small quantity.

Uses

• Nutmeg is aromatic, carminative, flavouring agent. Both nutmeg and mace are used for flatulence, in allay nausea and vomiting. Graded nutmeg along with lard is used in ointment for piles. It has narcotic action and peripherally it irritates and produces anesthetics action, since it irritates intestine and uterus it can cause abortion. Oil of Nutmeg is used to conceal the taste of various drugs and as a local stimulant to the gastrointestinal tract.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Diakof, Geriforte, Mentat, Lukol (Himalaya Drug Company), and Kumaryasava (Dabur).

CALAMUS

Synonyms

• Sweet Flag, Sweet cane, Sweet root, Sweet grass, Sweet rush. Cinnamon sedge, Myrtle grass, Myrtle flag, Myrtle sedge, Sweet myrtle Beewort, Calamus rhizome, Sweet segg.

Biological Source

• Calamus consists of dried rhizomes of Acorus calamus Linn., belonging to family Araceae.

Cultivation and Collection

• The plants can be propagated by rhizomes either in early spring or in late autumn. The portions of the rhizome are planted in damp, muddy spots, on the margins of water. They are set 1 foot apart and well-covered. It grows very well in moist ground which is rich and frequently watered. The rhizomes are gathered generally after two or three years when they are large enough. It is collected in late autumn or early spring.

Characterisitics

It is a semiaquatic perennial plant. The plant grows from 60 to 100 cm tall. The stem is triangular and sprouts from a horizontal, round rootstock, which has the thickness of a thumb. The leaves are yellowish-green, 2 to 3 feet in length, oblong, sword-shaped, tapering into a long, acute point, often undulate on the margins and arranged in two rows. The rhizome has an intensely aromatic fragrance and a tangy, pungent and bitter taste. The flowers are small dice-shaped, slim, conical spadix, greenish in colour appear from May to July. Fruits are berries, full of mucus, which falls when ripe into the water or to the ground. Rhizomes are about 20 cm long, 1 to 2 cm in diameter, either peeled or unpeeled, reddish grey in colour, soft, porous, with longitudinal furrows. On the lower surface there are small root scars which are slightly raised.

Chemical Constituents

The dried rhizome contains about 1.5–2.7% of a neutral, yellow, aromatic, essential oil. The fresh aerial parts yieldabout 0.12% of the volatile oil, whereas the unpeeled roots yield the maximum of 1.5–3.5%. The constituents present in calamus are acorin a volatile essential oil, amorphous, which is semifluid, resinous, neutral in reaction, bitter and aromatic, and soluble in alcohol, chloroform and ether; acoretin or choline is a bitter principle with resinous nature; a crystalline alkaloid soluble in alcohol and chloroform, Calamine; along with other constituents like bitter glucoside, starch, mucilage and traces of tannin. The volatile oil is yellowish-brown in colour and is composed of asaryl aldehyde, heptylic and palmitic acid, eugenol, esters of acetic and palmitic acids, pinene, camphene, sesquiterpene, calamene and a small quantity of phenol, methyl eugenol, cilamenenol, and calameone.

Uses

• Calamus is an aromatic, bitter stomachic, carminative, appetizer, digestive, spasmolytic, stomach tonic, nervine sedative, and antiperiodic. The volatile oil is aromatic, expectorant and antiseptic, as a flavouring agent, in perfumery. The dried root and rhizomes are chewed to relieve dyspepsia, bronchitis and also chewed to clear the voice.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Abana, Mentat, Anxocare Pain massage oil (Himalaya Drug Company) and Mahamarichadi tail, Brahma rasayan (Dabur).

VOLATILE OIL CONTAINING OXIDES

• Cineole (eucalyptol) is found in Eucalyptus, Cajuput, and other volatile oil-yielding drugs. The presence of limonenel,2-epoxide, pinene oxides, ascaridole (chenopodium oil), and ascaridole epoxide is also reported.

CHENOPODIUM OIL

Synonyms

• Herba sancti mariae, Jesuit’s tea, Mexican tea.

Biological Source

• Chenopodium oil is the volatile oil obtained by the distillation from the fresh aerial parts of Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn, belonging to family Chenopodiaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is indigenous to Mexico and South America. It is also cultivated in New England, Europe, Missouri, Austria, and in eastern United States.

Cultivation and Collection

• It is grown in manured soils. The plant flower from July to September, and the fruits ripen successively through the autumn and are collected in October. The fruits contain volatile oil (1 to 4%).

Characteristics

Chenopodium ambrosioides is stout, erect, angular and grooved stem growing to a height of about 2 feet. The leaves are slightly petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, toothed. It has small, very numerous flowers with yellowish green colour; calyx has five-cleft, lobes ovate, pointed, five stamens, ovary covered on the top with small, oblong, stalked glands and two to three styles. The fruit is completely enclosed in the calyx, and the seed are smooth, shining and brownish black in colour. The globular fruit are not larger than the head of a pin with greenish yellow or brown colour. Fruit has strong odour resembling somewhat that of eucalyptus with pungent and bitter taste. The oil is colourless or yellowish, when freshly distilled, becoming deeper yellow and finally brownish on long storage. It has a peculiar, penetrating, somewhat camphoraceous odour, and a pungent, bitter taste. Crushed fruits yield 0.6 to 1.0% of oil.

Chemical Constituents

Ascaridole, a terpene peroxide, to the high percentage of 60 to 70%, an unstable substance is present in the oil. Italso contains p-cymene, α-perpinene, probably dihydro-pcymene, and possibly sylvestrene. Betzine, choline, glycol, and safrol have also been reported.

Uses

• Chenopodium oil is used as anthelmintic especially in tapeworm, round worms, and hook worms. It is also used as active purgative, in the treatment of malaria, hysteria, and other nervous diseases. It is employed in veterinary practice in a worm mixture for dogs, in combination with oil of turpentine, oil of aniseed, castor oil, and olive oil.

Synonyms

• Eucalyptus, Stringy Bark Tree, Blue gum, Blue Gum Tree.

Biological Source

• Eucalyptus oil is the essential oil obtained by the distillation of fresh leaves of Eucalyptus globulus and other species like E. polybractea, E. viminalis, and E. smithii, belonging to family Myrtaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is mainly found in Australia, Tasmania, United States, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, North and South Africa, India, France, and Southern Europe.

History

• Eucalyptus globulus has been used since a long time for intermittent fever. The leaves and their preparations have been successfully used as a tonic, stimulant, stomachic, in dyspepsia, in catarrh of the stomach, in typhoid fever, in asthma, in whooping cough, etc. More recently it has been recommended as a diuretic in the treatment of dropsy.

Characteristics

• Eucalyptus is a tall, evergreen tree, the trunk, which grows to 300 feet high or more, is covered with peeling papery bark. The leaves on the young plant, up to five years old, are opposite, sessile, soft, oblong, pointed, and a hoary blue colour. The mature leaves are alternate, petioled, leathery, and shaped like a scimitar. The flowers are solitary and white, without any petals.

• Eucalyptus oil is a colourless or straw-coloured fluid, with a characteristic odour and taste, soluble in its own weight of alcohol. According to the British Pharmacopoeia Eucalyptus oil should contain not less than 55%, by volume of Eucalyptol, have a specific gravity 0.910 to 0.930, and optical rotation –10 degrees to 10 degrees.

Microscopy

Eucalyptus leaf is isobilateral. Stomata are of anomocytic type and sunken, on both surfaces. Epidermal cells are polygonal with thick cuticle; anticlinal walls are straight on both surfaces. There are three to four layers of elongated palisade cells below each epidermis. Between these palisade regions, two to three layers of spongy parenchyma occur and some of its cells contain cluster and prismatic calcium oxalate crystals. Palisade regions exhibit large subglobular oleoresin cavities. The midrib region shows no collenchymatous cells. Transverse section through the midrib region shows nearly uninterrupted arc of lignified pericyclic fibres just outside the vascular bundle

Chemical Constituents     

Eucalyptus oil contains volatile oil of which 70 to 85% is 1,8-cineole also known as eucalyptol. The other constituents present are p-cymene, α-pinene; small quantity of sesquiterpenes like ledol, aromadendrene; aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols. It also has polyphenolic acids like ferulic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid; flavonoids such as eucalyptin, hyperoside and rutin.

Uses

• The oil is used as stimulant, antiseptic, flavouring agent, aromatic, deodorant, expectorant, antimicrobial, febrifuge, diuretic, and antispasmodic. It is also used in the treatment of lung diseases, sore throat, cold, as a vapour bath for asthma and various respiratory ailments and in bronchitis.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Cold Balm, Muscle and Joint Rub, Canisep, Erina-EP, Scavon Vet. (Himalaya Drug Company).

CARDAMOM

 Synonyms

• Cardamom fruit, Cardamom seed, Cardamomi semina, Malabar cardamums, Capalaga, Gujatatti elachi, Ilachi, Ailum.

Biological Source

• Cardamom consists of the dried ripe seeds of Elettaria cardamomum Maton., belonging to family Zingiberaceae

Geographical Source

• It is cultivated in South India and Ceylon. Like Mysore, Kerala, etc.

History

• According to the ancient literature, cardamom grew in the gardens of the King of Babylon in 720 B.C. The ancient Egyptians chewed cardamoms to whiten their teeth and at the same time to sweeten their breath. The Indian Ayurvedic medicine during 4 B.C. used the spice to remove fat and to treat urinary and skin complaints. Ancient Greeks and Romans used cardamom in perfumes and a famous Roman epicure Apicius also recommended it to counteract overindulgence.

Cultivation and Collection

• It is a large perennial herb, largely cultivated in forests 2,500 to 5,000 feet above sea-level in North Canara, Coorgi, and Wynaad. It grows to a height of 6 to 10 feet from a thumb-thick, creeping rootstock. The seeds are first sown in nurseries and then transplanted into rich moist soil, when the seedlings are a year old or about 30 cm. Small crops are obtained after the third year till six to seven years.

• It flowers in April and May and the fruit gathering lasts in dry weather for three months, starting in October when the colour turns from green to yellow. (The methods of cultivating and preparing vary in different districts) Thecollected fruits are washed to remove the impurities like sand, and the fruits are dried quickly by putting them on trays in thin layers, exposed to sunlight, with occasional sprinkling of water and dried.

Characteristics

Cardamom has simple, erect stems, the leaves are lanceolate, upper surface is dark green and glabrous, whereas it is light green and silky below. The small, yellowish flowers grow in loose racemes on prostrate flower stems. The fruit is a three-celled capsule holding up to 18 seeds. The fruit is an inferior trilocular three-angled capsule, 1 to 2 cm long, greenish to pale buff or yellow in colour. They have an ovoid or oblong shape, rounded at the base; the base has the remains of stalk or the perianth. Seeds are derived from anatropous ovules and the seeds are attached in double rows with axile placentation and the membraneous septa. The seeds are about 1/5 of an inch long, angular, wrinkled and whitish inside. They should be powdered only when wanted for use, as they lose their aromatic properties.

Microscopy

There is a very thin membraneous arillus, enveloping the seed and composed of several layers of collapsed cells, yellow in colour, and containing oil. The brownish testa is composed of an outer epidermis consisting of a single layer of cells rectangular in transverse section, longitudinally elongated and with parenchymatous end walls in surface view; light yellow in colour and having slightly thick end walls; a single layer of large parenchymatous cells containing volatile oil. In the region of the raphe there are two layers of oil cells separated by the raphe meristele; several layers of small flattened parenchymatous cells, and an inner epidermis of sclerenchymatous cells, radially elongated, with anticlinal and inner walls very strongly thickened and reddish-brown in colour. The operculum or embryonic cap is composed of two or three layers of these sclerenchymatous cells. The micropyle is a narrow canal passing through the operculum. Within the testa is a well-developed perisperm composed of parenchymatous cells packed with minute globular starch grains, and containing in the centre of each cell a small prismatic crystal of calcium oxaiate. The perisperm encircles the endosperm and embryo, both composed of thin-walled cells rich in protein.

Cardamom pericarps or husks is identified in the form of powder by the pitted fibres and spiral vessels of the fibrovascular bundles and by the abundant, empty parenchymatous cells.

Chemical Constituents

The seeds contain 3 to 6% of volatile oil along with fixed oil, salts of potassium, a colouring principle, nitrogenous mucilage, an acrid resin, starch, ligneous fibre, and ash. The active constituent of the volatile oil is cineole. Other aromatic compounds present are terpinyl acetate, terpineol, borneol, terpinene, etc. The oil is colourless when fresh, but becomes thicker, more yellow and less aromatic on storage. It is soluble in alcohol and readily in four volumes of 70% alcohol, producing a clear solution. Its specific gravity at 25°C is 0.924 to 0.927.

Uses

• Cardamom is used as an aromatic, carminative, stimulant, stomachic, expectorant, diaphoretic, digestive, appetizer, and flavouring agent. It is used in the treatment of respiratory disorders like asthma, bronchitis, cough, nausea, vomiting, indigestion, headache, diarrhea, colds, for flatulence, also used as a spice in cooking.

Allied Drug

• Elettaria cardamomum var. major: This species is the source of the long wild native Cardamom of Sri Lanka. They are 4 cm long, pericarp is dark brown and coarsely striated. Its volatile oil is used in liquors. 

• Amomum aromaticum and A. subulatum: A. aromaticum is obtained from Bengal and Assam and is known as Bengal Cardamom. A. subulatum is obtained from Nepal, Bengal, Sikkim, and Assam and known as Nepal or Greater Cardamom. A. subutalum contains petunidin-3,5-diglucoside, leucocyanidin-3-glucoside, cardamonin, alpinetin, and aurone glucoside subulin. 

• Malabar Cardamom is characterized by a short leafy shoot, 3 m in height, the fruit shape is roundish or elongated, smaller than the Mysore Cardamom. 

• Mysore Cardamom is a robust with leafy stem, up to 5 m high. Mysore Cardamom fruits are elongated, 2–5 cm long, yellowish green when ripe, slightly arched, and darkish brown when dry; seeds are numerous, large, and less aromatic. 

• Mangalore cardamom resembles the Malabar but is more globular and has a rougher pericarp.

 Adulteration

• Cardamom fruits are often adulterated with orange seeds and unroasted coffee grains. The adulterants of seeds are small pebbles and seeds of Amomum spp. Powdered seeds are adulterated with the powder of husks.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Koflet, Renalka syrup, Mentat and Anxocare (Himalaya Drug Company).

VOLATILE OIL CONTAINING ESTER

• The most common esters are of terpineol, borneol and geraniol. The perfumes are aged to undergo esterification, thus improving bouquet. Allyl isothiocyanate in mustard oil and methyl salicylate in wintergreen oil are also esters. The drugs are Lavender oil, dwarf pine needle oil, Mustard oil and Gaultheria oil, Garlic, Valerian, and Rosemary oil.

GARLIC

Synonyms

• Allium; Lasan (Hindi).

Biological Source

• Garlic is the ripe bulb of Allium sativum Linn., belonging to family Liliaceae.

Geographical Source

• Garlic occurs in central Asia, southern Europe, and United States. It is widely cultivated in India.

Cultivation and Collection

• The cultivation of Garlic is similar to that of onion. It is generally grown as an irrigated crop throughout the year. It can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions but it succeeds best in mild climates without extremes of heat and cold. It is grown on a wide variety of soils. It requires a rich well-drained clay loam to grow well. The land is well ploughed to a fine tilth, beds, and channels are made. Garlic is planted during October–November in plains and during February–March in the hills. The cloves are separated and pressed lightly into the soil. Garlic requires heavy manuring.

Characteristics

It is a perennial herb having bulbs with several cloves, enclosed in a silky white or pink membraneous envelope.

Chemical Constituents

The fresh material yields about 1–2% of volatile oil containing 0.8–6% of esters, and 8–20% of alcohols. The principal constituents are 1,8-cineole, borneol, camphor, bornyl acetate, and monoterpene hydrocarbons. Rosemary leaves also contain the triterpene alcohols α- and β-amyrins, rosmarinic acid, rofficerone caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, α-hydroxydihydrocaffeic acid, glycosides of luteolin and diosmetin, carnosolic acid, carnosol, rosmanol, epirosmanol, and isorosmanol.

Uses

• The oil is mainly used in the perfumery industry. It is a component of soap liniment and is frequently used in aromatherapy. The oil is also used for gastrointestinal disturbances, to enhance urinary and digestive elimination function and as a choleretic or cholagogue. Topically, it is applied to clear nasal passages, for colds, as a mouthwash and for rheumatic ailments. Rosemary extracts are used in food technology as antioxidants and preservatives.

• Cornosolic acid, a diterpene isolated from R. officinalis, shows a strong inhibition of HIV-1-protease activity. It shows cytotoxicity at the dose which is close to effective antiviral dose.

Adulteration

• Adulteration of the oil with Spanish eucalyptus oil, camphor oil, and turpentine fractions is common.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Anti-Dandruff Hair Oil, Anti-Dandruff Shampoo, Protein Shampoo for oily/greasy hair, and Erina Plus (Himalaya Drug Company).

GAULTHERIA OIL

Synonyms

• Canada tea, Checker berry, Wintergreen oil.

Biological Source

• It is the volatile oil obtained by the distillation of dried leaves of Gaultheria procumbens Linn., belonging to family Ericaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is mainly found in Northern United States from Georgia to New foundland, Canada, etc.

Characteristics

It is small indigenous shrubby, creeping, evergreen in nature. It grows to about 5 to 6 inches high. It is found in large patches on sandy, barren plains and also on mountainous tracts. The leaves are petiolate, oval, shiny, coriaceous, the upper side bright green and the lower paler. The drooping white flowers are produced at the base of the leaves in June or July, followed by the formation of fleshy bright red coloured berries. The berries are sweet in taste formed by the enlargement of the calyx. The odour is peculiar and aromatic, and the taste of the whole plant is astringent.

Chemical Constituents

The volatile oil contains 99% methyl salicylate, along with other components like Gaultherilene and an aldehyde or ketone, a secondary alcohol and an ester. The characteristic odour of the oil is due to the alcohol and ester. The oil does not occur crudely in the plant, but is a nonodorous glucoside, produced by the fermentation of (between water and Gaultherin) leaves for twelve to twenty-four hours.

Uses

• It is used as tonic, stimulant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, aromatic. Useful as a diuretic, it stimulate stomach, heart, and respiration; in chronic inflammatory rheumatism, rheumatic fever, skin diseases, sciatica; for dropsy, gonorrhea, stomach trouble, bladder troubles, and obstruction in the bowels. The oil is a flavouring agent for tooth powders, liquid dentrifices, pastes, etc., especially if combined with menthol and eucalyptus.

Marketed Products

• It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Rheumatil gel and Dabur balm (Dabur).

VALERIAN

Synonyms

• European valerian, English valerian, German valerian, Valeriana rhizome.

Biological Source

• Valerian consists of the dried roots and rhizomes of Valeriana wallichi Linn., belonging to family Valerianaceae.

Geographical Source

• It is indigenous to Britain and also found in Holland, France, Japan, Belgium, and Germany.

Cultivation and Collection

• Valerian does well in all ordinary soils, but prefers rich, heavy loam, well-supplied with moisture. Preference is given in collecting root offsets. The daughter plants and young flowering plants, which develop towards the end of summer, at the end of slender runners given off by the perennial rhizomes of old plants. They are set 1 foot apart in rows, 2 or 3 feet apart in soil pretreated with farmyard manure, and after planting it is supplied with liquid manure timely along with plenty of water. Weeding requires considerable attention.

• Seed propagation is also done. The seeds are either sown when ripe in cold frames or in open in March in gentle heat. Transplantation if required is done in May to permanent quarters. But to ensure the best alkaloidal percentage, it is best to transplant and cultivate the daughter plants of the wild Valerian. The flowering tops are cut off so as to enabling the better growth of the rhizome. Many of the young plants do not flower in the first year, but produce a luxuriant crop of leaves and yield rhizome of good quality in the autumn. In late September or in early October, all the tops are cut off, and the rhizomes are harvested. Large rhizomes are cut into transverse or longitudinal slices and dried as quickly as possible at low temperature.

Characteristics

The drug are found either entire or sliced erect rhizome, which is dark yellowish-brown externally. It has a size of about 1 inch long and 1/2 inch thick, having numerous slender brittle roots from 2 1/2 to 4 inches long and few short, slender, lateral branches are also present. The rootstocks are sometimes crowned with the remains of flowering stems and leafscales are usually firm, horny, and whitish or yellowish internally. A transverse section shows irregular outline and exhibits a comparatively narrow bark,separated by a dark line from an irregular circle of wood bundles of varying size.

 

Chemical Constituents

• The chief constituent of Valerian is a yellowish-green to brownish-yellow oil, present in the dried root to the extent of 0.5 to 2%. Oil is contained in the sub-epidermal layer of cells consist of valerianic, formic, and acetic acids; the alcohol known as borneol and pinene. Fresh rhizomes are reported to have glucoside, alkaloid, and resin.Uses

Uses

• Valerian is used in the treatment of insomnia, hysteria, blood pressure, as an anticonvulsant in the treatment of epilepsy. Valerian can produce a mild and safer sedative without producing any addiction and dependency. Valerian has shown to have some antitumor activity, also used as aromatic, stimulant, nervine, emmenagogue, anodyne, and antispasmodic. It can promote menstruation when taken hot. Useful in colic, low fevers, to break up colds and relieves palpitation of the heart. Oil of Valerian is employed as a popular remedy for cholera, in the form of cholera drops and also to a certain extent in soap perfumery.

Marketed Products

It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Mentat, Anxocare (Himalaya Drug Company) and Saptagun taila (Baidyanath).