Environmental Science Social Issues

Chapter 6

Environmental Science Social Issues

Introduction

• The term sustainable was development and introduced by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission), in its seminal report of 1987, Our Common Future. The concept has terrifically worked out in creating public awareness for sustaining the planet with better management. The sustainable development has been defined as “meeting the need of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generation”. The concept precisely emphasizes upon using the earth resources judiciously and compensating for it in some sense e.g. if cut few trees to support our lives, we should also implant some new ones at some site. This would result in. maintaining the earths fine balance between resource consumption and resource generation.

• In understanding this concept, we very often encounter two terms- sustainable and development. These are summarized below as:

Sustainable

• The literal meaning of sustainability is “that can be maintained” or “keep goal continuously”. In ecological sense it refers to “conservation of ecological balance by avoiding depletion of natural resources”. Hence, we can understand it as something, which has got to do with longevity (long life) of a resource, commodity, species, ecosystem, earth etc.

Development

• The literal meaning of development is “the act or instance of growth/advancement”. So the growth can be of many types viz., growth of education, growth of industry, growth of population, growth of forests and many other. But what type of growth are we addressing to? Here we are addressing to one of the most sensitive issue of growing concern ‘about improving the well-being of human beings. This could be achieved only through compromising with some of our comforts and luxuries. The generation of comforts and luxuries brings environment under great pressure. The Nations economic growth should not stand upon the fragile foundation of earth’s resources. Mahatma Gandhi a great social scientist, rightly pointed out that, “The earth provides enough to satisfy everyone’s need, but not everyone’s greed”.

• In the context of economical and technical development the world always had been better today than yesteryears and will always be better tomorrow than today. But the condition of environment will always be poorer than before. Hence, the concept of sustainable development raises certain questions for the present generations to answer. What is our present? Are we happy with our present? Prospective changes of the magnitude described above raises fundamental questions about the kind of world we will bequeath to our children and about the nature and goals of development. The present in which we live is important as it shapes our future. Nothing much can be done to recover the damages imposed on nature in the past. But if we shape our surroundings based on environmental ethics and economically exploit our present environment we would lend a healthier tomorrow to our children. As we have examined some environmental issues in the previous chapters, we would commonly agree that human population growth, loss of biodiversity, habitat destruction, ozone depletion, global climate change, pollution (air, water, noise etc.) and limited food & energy supply are environmental concerns of global scale. In the past two decades a great deal of work from researchers, ecologists, environmental scientists, social scientists, geographers and demographers have built up a very clear picture of what our tomorrow would be like: Some initiatives have been taken up both at government and non-government level. Still promising environmental concern at individual level is far lacking beyond sustainable needs.

• Although population growth continues to expand at an unsustainable pace, but still certain countries have achieved a demographic transition to zero population growth. However, positive signs from developing nations are still absent. We have achieved breakthroughs in renewable energy sources, agro-forestry schemes and better pollution control advancements. Increased man awareness, resourcefulness and enterprise will help eliminate poverty and resource wastage and will make our environment a much better place to live in. Until environmental concerns do not find space in our heart, we would never be able to delicately handle our surroundings when we are at home or public. We should recognize things at personal and collective grounds to protect nature and to create a sustainable environment.

Urban Problems Related to Energy

• Big cities and towns have always influenced education, religion, commerce, communication and politics, which have in turn influenced culture and society in various proportions. Initially only a very limited section of the society lived in cities and towns while the chief occupation of major population had been fishing, hunting, agriculture and cattle rearing. However,’ Industrial Revolution led to expansion of cities and town both in size and power. In developing nations, especially a large segment of society from villages moved to cities for occupational support (occupational migration). This exactly was the cause of rapid expansion of cities and formation of metropolitans like Delhi, Bombay, Chennai, Bangalore, Calcutta and others. This ultimately brought into picture the concept of urbanization and industrializations, which provided many benefits to society, especially to the rich, but also introduced some evils in it. Here evils referred to be the increasing demand on energy resources, whose consumption in turn lead to multitude problems of pollution, resource shortage, diseases and waste disposal. Some of the major urban problems related to energy are as under.

• (i) Electricity

• Electricity from various sources is a major requirement of expanding cities, towns and villages. Each and every activity of mans life is now someway related to electricity consumption. Housing gadgets like mixer-grinder, T.V., computer, music systems, geysers, fans, lights, A.C.s, microwave, water lifting pump, warm blowers, coolers, etc. form the essential components of a house. This all together has led to an electricity energy crunch. It is well known that some part of electricity is lost in transmission and greater part is stolen. The remainder is simply not enough to support the majority of people in the city and that’s why the problem of electricity in cities is on the rise. The buildings are empowering the cities like anything but nowhere we see dams, supplying electrical units, increasing in number at the same pace. Therefore, what majority of the cities face today is a usual cut of electricity for a minimum of 6-8 hrs. This makes today’s urban life handicapped. Resourceful enjoy the resource benefit from the rising generator and inverter culture, which in turn put pressure on resources and lead to pollution problems.

• (ii) Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal)

• Fossil fuels have always been under a great threat from times immemorial. In the absence of technological advancements these have served mankind for several years. In this quest for energy the coal reserves have suffered a lot. With rise in technical know-how man started generating power from nuclear sources, hydroelectric power, wind power etc. But still, these contribute a little. We still depend on thermal power a lot.

• (a) Petrol and Diesel: Transport and communication has brought the petroleum reserves of the world under a great threat. The rise in number of vehicle per year is immense. To understand the gravity of the problem a glance of metropolitan roads and lanes is enough. Even the roads and lanes of big cities, small cities and towns are loaded with two wheelers. 

• (b) Natural Gas: The common usage of natural gas is in the form of Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). There is a terrific rise in the usage of LPG driven household commodities with the expanding population. Earlier the LPG usage was only limited to kitchen for cooking. The advent of technology introduced a numerous household items making its use like gas geysers, gas heaters, gas fans, gas lanterns etc. In a way it is serving as a substitute of electricity, which is other reason for increasing pressure on oil wells/reserves.

• (c) Coal: The world population has extracted and used coal reserves thinking as if it is a never-ending commodity/resource. It has served Sustainable Development, — Urban Problems, — Water Conservation and Management, — Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People, — Environmental Ethics, — Global Warning, — Environment Protection Act, — Issues involved in Enforcement of Environment Legislation,

• (iii) Fuel wood

• Fuel wood being used for the ignition of fire is chiefly responsible for the destruction of impoverished forestlands. Though fuel wood collection to support family daily chores is allowed in certain parts of the forest generally the outskirts but the greed and dearth compels women to penetrate deep into the forest. Generally, the big cities are characterized by the absence of forestland at the fringes. But whatever degraded forest is available serve as a source of fuel wood even in and around urban center's e.g. Dehradun is a well-developed city, but in its fringes we can still see women and children carrying loads of fuel wood.

Water Conservation

• We could save as much as half of the water we now use for domestic purposes without great sacrifice or serious changes in our lifestyles. Simple steps, such as taking shorter showers, stopping leaks, and washing cars, dishes, and clothes as efficiently as possible, can go a long way toward forestalling the water shortages that many authorities predict. Isn’t it better to adapt to more conservative uses now when we have a choice than to be forced to do it by scarcity in the future? 

Rainwater Harvesting

• Water is commonly taken for granted as nature’s gift. Often it is used wastefully in agriculture, but industry and people pollute and poison available water supplies at an alarming rate. Water problems arise from increasing demands generated by rapid population growth, urbanization, industrialization and irrigation for additional food production. In many areas excessive pumping of groundwater not only brings down water quality, but also depletes it this affects’ sustainability. The ‘capacity of irrigation tanks numbering about five lakhs in the country is shrinking due to situation and encroachment. Scarcity is noticed even in high rainfall areas like Cherra punji (Assam), Western Ghats and Kerala. This is due to improper management and poor conservation of rainwater.

Watershed Management

• It was suggested that, rather than allowing residential, commercial, or industrial development on flood plains, these areas should be reserved for water storage, aquifer recharge, wildlife habitat, and agriculture. Sound farming and forestry practices can reduce runoff. Retaining crop residue on fields reduces flooding and minimizing. Ploughing and forest cutting on steep slopes protects watersheds. Wetlands conservation preserves natural water storage capacity and aquifer recharge zones. A river fed by marshes and wet meadows tend to run consistently clear and steady rather than in violent floods.

• A series of small dams on tributary streams can hold backwater before it becomes a great flood. Ponds formed by these dams provide useful wildlife habitat and stock-watering facilities. They also catch soil where it could be returned to the fields. Small dams can be built with simple equipment and local labor; eliminating the need for massive construction projects and huge dams. Watershed-based frame for rain fed agriculture provides uncommon opportunities for achieving sustainable food and nutritional security. It is time that the watershed development agenda is considered a programmer for-the mass.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People

• “Land for land” is a better policy than cash settlement. Even in implementing this policy, the land is not given in the command area in most cases, forestland is either cleared on waste fallow land given without any provision for developing the land or for the supply of necessary inputs; a village is broken up and families dispersed; villagers are usually left to buy private land, take loans from the government, which puts poor villagers at a disadvantage- land prices in neighboring villages shoot up steeply if the government takes up resettlement; the villagers are resettled in distant places, sometimes in a totally alien environment and culture, thus creating insurmountable adjustment problems. Oustees from Pong dam in Himachal Pradesh were settled in Anupgarh in Rajasthan, bordering on Pakistan. The people were generally left to fend for themselves. Arrangements for drinking water, dispensaries, schools, village roads or drainage of the rehabilitation sites are only completed years later. In the case of the Ukai Dam in Gujarat, resettlement work was undertaken by the ‘Ukai Nav Nirman Samity. Even so, out of a total of 18,500 affected families, only 3500 families could be resettled.

• People who could previously barely manage to survive in their traditional environment are uprooted as a result. The objectives of rehabilitation should be:

• 1. The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of development. 

• 2. Creating new settlements with their own environment should rehabilitate them. 

• 3. Removal of poverty should also be an objective of the rehabilitation policy and therefore some land to all.

•  4. Outsees (even the landless) should be given assurance of employment. 

• 5. While dealing with tribal one should also keep in mind the following five principles of tribal-development accepted during Jawaharlal Nehru’s era as ‘tribal panchsheel.’ 

• 6. Tribal should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them. 

• 7. We should try to encourage their own traditional arts and culture in every way. 

• 8. Resettlement should be in the neighborhood of their own environment. If resettlement is not possible in the command area, top priority should be given to the development of irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for agriculture; drinking water, wells, grazing grounds for cattle schools for the children, primary health care units and other amenities should be arranged. 

• 9. In partly affected village, villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others with the same compensation as available to evacuees. 

• 10. Training facilities should be set up to upgrade the skills of affected people and reservation in jobs should be made for the willing adults among the evacuees. 

• 11. Special attention should be given to the rehabilitation of artisans and village crafts people. 

• 12. Villagers should be taken into confidence at every stage or implementation, and they should be educated, through open meetings and discussion about the legalities of the Land Acquisition Act and other rehabilitation provisions.

• 13. The aid of voluntary agencies planning and implementation programmer.

Rehabilitation Problem

• Involuntary displacement of human population is always traumatic. Irrespective of the causes leading to such migrations the degree of suffering experienced by such people simply cannot be quantified in money values, and even in words it can be described only inadequately. But, unfortunately, ousting of people likely to be submerged under irrigation or hydel power dams is a classic case where hardships are imposed on people in spite of the ‘pro-people’ laws and policies proclaimed by the Government. Below is a critique of the Tehri Dam Rehabilitation.

• Compensatory Land

• The project authorities commenced the Scheme by allocating 2767 acre of land in the Dehra Dun area, which was already reeling under severe pressure from tourism, limestone quarrying and urban expansion.

• Rehabilitation should be collective

• In the villages, almost each’ family depends on the other. The social and moral obligations towards each other bind them into one cohesive whole. The authorities are rehabilitating individual families and not the village as a whole.

• Monetary Compensation

• Mere payment of cash is not rehabilitation. Moreover, the amount of cash paid as compensation is insufficient to buy land in other places because of the high rates. The oustees being basically farmers lack the business acumen needed to set up a viable commercial alternative. Since they are not accustomed to having such large sums (relative to their usually small incomes) in a lump sum, they are ignorant as to how they should spend it.

• Mismanagement

• The project authorities estimated the total affected population in 1981 as 46,000. Using the Census Office figures, the total number affected for 1981 is act 70,000

• Lack of Public Relations

• The majority of populace to be displaced consists of advises, tribal, scheduled castes that have a unique lifestyle. The traumatic experience of shifting to new areas and new occupations involving drastic changes in their lifestyle weighs heavily on these people. The absence of any public relation efforts has further aggravated the situation.

Environmental Ethic

• The Earth is unique among all the planets in our solar system. It is endowed with plentiful resources. Man’s greed to raise his standard of living compels him control and tap natural resources. Many. rivers throughout the world have been “controlled” to provide power, irrigation, and navigation for the people at the expense of the natural world. If such gifts of nature are not tapped for resource generation, many people think it to be wastage of resources. The capitalists want to use the forests for timber production and not doing so is closely linked to economic hardships. Removing the trees would destroy something that took hundreds of years to develop and may never be replaced. Efforts to manage the interactions between people and their environment are an age-old practice. At one time, pollution was a local, temporary event, but today, pollution problems have crossed international borders and have become global. The seminars over chemical and radioactive waste disposal witness the increasingly international nature of pollution.

• The development ethic is based 011 actions. Development in any sector is inevitable. . But the development should not crop up at the cost of environmental failure. This philosophy is strengthened by the idea that, “if it can be done, it should be done.”

• The preservation ethic considers nature special in itself. Some preservationists have an almost religious outlook regarding nature. They believe that nature is beautiful place to live in and it should be maintained for feeding, breeding, enjoyment and peace. On the other hand scientific outlook argue that the human species depends on and has much to learn from nature. Rare and endangered species and ecosystems, as well as the more common ones, must be preserved because of their known or assumed long-range, practical utility.

• The third environmental ethic is referred to as the conservation ethic, It recognizes the desirability of decent living standards, but it works towards a balance of resource use and resource availability.

Industrial Environmental Ethics

• Industries are harmful to the health of environment and hence at large are considered as nuisance. When raw materials are processed, some waste is inevitable e.g. paper industry leads to a lot of wastage and pollution of water. It is usually not possible to completely control the dispersal of all by-products of a manufacturing process. Also, some of the waste material may simply be useless. Ethics are involved, however, when an industrialist compromise upon the quality of a product or waste disposal to maximize profit. It is cheaper to dump wastes into a river than to install a wastewater treatment facility. At its core, environmental justice means fairness. It speaks to the impartiality that should guide the application of laws designed to protect the health of human beings and the productivity of ecological systems on which all human activity, economic activity included, depends. 

Environmental Ethics at Individual level

• As human populations and economic activity continue to grow, we are facing a number of environmental problems that threaten not only human health and the productivity of ecosystems, but in some cases the very habitability of the globe. We have to recognize that each of us is individually responsible for the quality of the environment we live in and that our personal actions affect environmental quality, for better or worse. Our environmental ethics must begin to express itself not only in national laws, but also in subtle but profound changes in the ways we all live our daily lives. It appears that many individuals want the environment cleaned up, but they do not want to make major life-style changes to make that happen.

Global Environmental Ethics

• This new sense of urgency and common cause about the environment is leading to unprecedented cooperation in some areas. Ecological degradation in any nation almost inevitably impinges on the quality of life in others. For years, acid rain has been a major irritant in relations between the United States and Canada. 

Conclusion

• Will the nations of the world be able to put aside their political differences to work towards a global environmental course of action? Out of that international conference was born the U.N. Environment Programmed a separate department of the United Nations that deals with environmental issues. Through organizations such as this nations can work together to solve common environmental problems. Deep ecologists, on the other hand, see humankind itself as the main problem. They believe that the earth is a complex organism with its own needs, metabolism; and immune system and that humankind’s relationship with the earth is increasingly parasitic. In the book Deep Ecology: Living Nature. As If Nature Mattered, proponents Bill Devall and George Sessions, clearly state their principles: (1) Humans have no right to reduce the richness and diversity of life except to satisfy vital needs: (2) the quality of human life and culture is compatible with a substantial decrease in the human population; and (3) the flourishing of non-human life requires such a decrease.

Climate Change

Introduction

• The recent interest in global warming and sustainable development has become a global talk. The most important global environmental topics as chosen by a panel of about 12 world experts were as follows: human population growth, biodiversity and conservation, climate change, forest decline, hazardous wastes, land degradation, human pathogens, urban environment, work environment and resource depletion. Man is as closely related to nature as he is to himself, because he is a part of it. An outright dependence on nature has been a striking feature of man’s progress through the centuries of his struggle.

What is Climate Change? 

• Climate change is a newcomer to the international political and environmental agenda, having emerged as a major policy issue only in the late 1980s and thereafter. It has emerged since the 19th century that CO2 in the atmosphere is a ‘greenhouse gas’, that is, its presence in the atmosphere helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby increasing the earth’s surface temperature. Of course, CO2 is only one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor. However, CO2 is the most important greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. CO2 is generated by a multitude of processes. Since the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil fuels increased dramatically, the contribution of CO2 from human activities has grown large enough to constitute a significant perturbation of the natural carbon cycle.

• The concentration of CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere was about 280 parts per million by volume (p.m.) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution began. By 1994 it was 358 p.m. and rising by about 1.5 pan per year. If emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 p.m., nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the 21st century.

Rising Concentrations

• The effect is that the atmosphere retains more of the Sun’s heat, warming the Earth’s surface. While the pattern of future warming is very much open to debate, it is indisputable that the surface of the Earth has warmed, on average, 0.3 to 0.6 °C since the late 19th century when reliable temperature measurements began. Under the existing scenarios of economic growth and development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 °C by the year 2100, and global mean sea level by about 15 to 95 cm. It is likely that changes of this magnitude and rapidity could Pose severe problems for many natural and managed ecosystems. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten complete Joss of land and extinction of habitation. 

Extreme Weather Events

• In addition, most of the ill effects of climate change are linked to extreme weather events, such as hot or cold spells of temperature, or wet or dry spells of rainfall, or cyclones and floods. Predictions of the nature and distributions of such events in a changed climate are even more uncertain- to the extent that virtually no authoritative predictions exist at all. While there are costs as well as benefits associated with climate change, the scientific consensus is clearly that the overall effects are likely to pose a significant burden on the global community. Unlike many other environmental issues, such as local air or water pollution, or even stratospheric ozone depletion caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), global warming poses special challenges due to the spatial and temporal extent of the problem covering the globe and with decades to centuries time scales.

• Analysis and assessment of just what steps needed to be taken to limit greenhouse gas emissions. This process resulted in the negotiation’ of a protocol, the final details of which were completed at the third meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention held December 1-12, 1997, in Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change commits industrialized nations to specific, legally binding emission reduction targets for six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, per-fluorinated compounds and Sulphur hex fluoride.

Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect

• In the late 1900’s researchers realized that the world may be getting warmer. The last two decades of the 1900’s witnessed some warm and cool years. However, not enough evidence were available to support the theory of global warming. But this a well-known fact that accumulation of several greenhouse gases can lead to a rise in temperature (global warming). If a global warming phenomenon sets in this would result in major changes in world’s climate. The increase in temperature might lead melting of snow on poles, which would terrifically add, to ocean waters. Hence the level of seas, and oceans would rise, this would largely affect the coastal areas. These would submerge under coastal Waters due to expansion of seas and oceans. Besides the Temperate climate pattern would shift northward and present temperate regions would become hot & dry.

• The concentrations of nitrous oxide have increased by 5-10% since pre-industrial times. The cause of this increase is highly uncertain, but it has been understood that the use of nitrogenous fertilizer, land clearing biomass burning, and fossil fuel combustion have all contributed. Nitrous oxide is currently increasing at a rate of about 0.25% per year, which represents and imbalance between sources and sinks of about 30%. CFCs were introduced into the atmosphere for the first time during the century; the most common species are CFC-12 and CFC-II. Of major concern because of their potential to deplete stratospheric ozone, the CFCs also represent about 15% of the current increases in the greenhouse effect.

Acid Rain

• Although the phenomenon of “acid rain” (more correctly acid deposition) was identified in Manchester, England, as long ago as 1852, and described more thoroughly in 1872, modern scientific research has been going on only since the mid-1950s. Public concern about the problem began in the late 1960s. Acid rain is an environmental hazard that is transponder in nature. Northeastern America, Northwestern Europe and India are facing an acute problem of acid rain. Acid rain has affected certain rivers, lakes, streams and forests in United Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA), Germany and many other countries. Acid rain literally means ‘the presence of excessive acids in rain waters. Acid precipitation is a mixture of strong mineral acids sulphonic acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and in some locations, hydrochloric acid (HCl). It usually has a ph of less than 5.6, the value of distilled water in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Acid in the Rain Water’s

• Acid rain problem is a result of anthropogenic activities. Most acids come from cars, homes, industries and power stations but some share is contributed by natural sources such as volcanoes, swamps and planktons. The acid problem is basically associated with the transport and subsequent deposition of oxides of sulphury, nitrogen and their oxidative products. These are produced by combustion of fossil fuels, power plants, automobile exhausts and domestic fires etc.

Formation of Acid Rain

• Acid rain is one of the form of acid deposition which can either be wet or dry, acid rain, snow, dew, fog, frost and mist are the wet form of deposition, while dust particles containing sulphate and nitrates which settle on ground is called dry deposition. Wet Acid Rain Coal, fuel wood or petroleum products have sulphury and nitrogen. These elements, when burnt in atmospheric oxygen,’ are converted into their respective oxides (SO2 and NO3), which are highly soluble in water. By anthropogenic and by natural sources, oxides of sulphury and nitrogen enter the atmosphere.

Reactions

• The primary reason for concern is that acid deposition acidifies streams, and taken on course, sandy soils low in lime: The effect is seen particularly in headwater areas and in wet montane environments, wherever sulphate loading from anthropogenic sources is strong. The chemical and physical consequences of lake acidification include increased leaching of calcium from terrestrial soils, mobilization of heavy metals such as aluminums, zinc, and manganese and an increase in the transparency of lake waters. The biological consequences include market changes in communities of aquatic plants and animals, with a progressive lessening of their diversity. 

• Acid deposition may further impoverish forests soils, developed on sandy substrata poor in lime. As a consequence of accelerated leaching of nutrients, such as phosphorous, potassium, magnesium and calcium from these soils, forest productivity would eventually be reduced. Moreover, the acid sulphate particles that contribute to acid precipitation are in the size range that penetrates deep into the lung, and they may well exacerbate lung diseases and increase mortality rates.

Ozone Layer Depletion

• Joseph Farman, of the British Meteorological Survey, and colleagues reported in the scientific journal Nature that concentrations of stratospheric ozone above Antarctica had plunged more than 40 percent from 1960s baseline levels during October, the first month of spring in the Southern Hemisphere, between 1977 and 1984. It meant that for several months of the year a hole forms in the ozone layer, which protects animals and plants from ultraviolet solar radiation. Suddenly it seemed that the chemical processes known to deplete ozone high in the earth’s atmosphere were working faster and more efficiently than predicted.

Chemistry of the Ozone Layer

• Oxygen molecules (O2), abundant throughout the atmosphere, are split apart into individual atoms (O + O) when energized by radiation from the sun. These atoms are free to collide with other O2 molecules to form ozone (O3). The particular configuration of the ozone molecules allows them to absorb the sun’s radiation in ultraviolet wavelengths that are harmful to life if they penetrate to the earth’s surface. The ozone molecules formed by collision are partially removed by other naturally occurring chemical reactions, and so the overall concentration of stratospheric ozone remains constant. High above the stratosphere, the density of gases is. so low that oxygen atoms rarely find other molecules to collide with, and ozone does not form in abundance. Below the ozone layer, too little solar radiation penetrates to allow appreciable amounts of ozone to form. Thus most of the world’s ozone is in a stratospheric layer bulging with ozone at latitudes from 10 to 35 kilometers.

Conventions

• Several conferences in the recent years have taken place which have provided international policy framework to be considered when dealing with the science of the global climate change as under: 

• Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna, Austria, March 22, 1985). This convention was signed by 20 states and the EEC at a conference convened by the UNEP. The object of the convention was the protection of human health and the environment against adverse effect resulting or likely to result from human activities, which modify or are likely to modify the ozone layer. International conference on the assessment of the role of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts (Villach, Austria, October 9- 15, 1985) and follow up workshops (Vulich, Austria, September 28, October 2, 1987, Bellagio, Italy November 9-13, 1987). The Veach conference held with 29 countries recommended that the- governments and intergovernmental organizations should take into account the results of the assessment made in their environmental programmer and should favor the increase of public information effects on the global change issues. This meet was in regard with the assessment of the presence of carbon’ dioxide in the atmosphere.

• Earth Summit-United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro 3-14 June, 1992)- The historic Earth Summit held from June 3-14, 1992 in Rio de Janeiro was attended by over 115 heads of states or governments. The major achievement was the adoption of Agenda 21, a voluminous 800 pages document that details how countries would go about achieving sustainable development with detailed chapters on the financial principle and mechanisms involved. There are also chapter on technology transfers.

Scientific Programmer an Other Activities of International Organizations

• The UNEP (United Nations Environment Programmer), UNDP (United Nations Development Programmed) are some of the environments programmed, which are making active efforts and are doing research in this field. Apart from them, Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), the European Economic Community (EEC), the European Science Foundation (ESF), The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), International Social Science Council (lasso), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), The Inter-governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) - this a part of UNESCO, the Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR) and many other such organizations. Apart from them there are other scientific activities underway which are funded by different organizations such as the World’ Weather Watch (WWW), World Climate Research Programma (WCRP), World Climate Programma (WCP), World Climate Impact Studies Programmer (WCIP), Past Global Change (PAGES), Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS), (Human Dimension of Global Change (HDGC), Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Global’ Change and Terrestrial Eco-System (GCTE).

• The Earth’s atmosphere is being changed at an unprecedented rate by pollutants resulting from human activities, inefficient and wasteful fossil fuel use and the effects of rapid population growth in many regions. Global climate is changing because of the build up in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide methane, nitrous oxide, the CFC’s (powerful greenhouse gases as well as destroyers of stratospheric ozone), and other greenhouse gases produced by fossil fuel burning, by deforestation and by producing food for the rapidly increasing population at a global level.

Wasteland Reclamation

• What is land degradation? Land degradation refers to the physical or chemical processes, which make land, unfit for a variety of purposes like agriculture, commercial, residential etc. Why land becomes degraded? Geological processes and anthropogenic activities are chiefly responsible for land degradation. Can degraded land be reclaimed or rejuvenated? To answer this grave question we have Central Arid Zone Research Area (CAZRA) at Jodhpur concerned with the conservation of land.

• During recent years increase in human activity has led to the degradation of habitat including cultivated land forests. Mangroves etc. About 50% of the land throughout the planet is arid with problem of acidity and salinity. Restoration of these areas is a matter of concern for developed as well as developing countries. However, in sites method are relatively in efficient. With the advent of biotechnology however a number of opportunities for ‘recovery of degraded land have arisen through manipulation of biological systems.

Wasteland

• Land, which does not give enough economic return or is otherwise useless, can broadly be termed as wasteland. National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in the ministry or Environment and Forest have defined wasteland as that land which is degraded and is presently lying unutilized. Further it has classified it into two categories as

•  i) Culturally wasteland and 

• ii) Non-cultural wasteland. Characteristics features of wasteland can be summarized as under: 

• The land becomes ecologically unstable and unproductive. 

• Land that has nearly or completely lost its topsoil. 

• Land that has developed toxicity in the zone of roots for the growth of most plants. Land Reclamation It is a process of making an uncultivable land fit for cultivation which is then said to have been reclaimed. Generally, it is carried out either by temporary or permanent control. 

Temporary Control Includes

• 1. Ploughing of salt-’surface crust deeply into the soil. 

• 2. Removing surface accumulation from the soil. 

• 3. Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by use of other salts or acids. Permanent Control Includes 1. Adequate lowering of water table. 

• 2. Satisfactory water infiltration.

•  3. Leaching excess salts out of the soil. 

• 4. Intelligent management of soil. Physical Improvements Involves 

• 1. Applying enough water. 2. Keeping drains open and in good repair. 

• 3. Preventing excessive evaporation. A few biotechnological methods are described below: .

• (i) Reforestation

• (ii) Improvement in soil — by mycorrhizae 

• (iii)Improvement of soil — through N2 fixation 

• (iv) Development of stress tolerant plant through biotechnology manipulation. 

• (v) Toxic site reclamation through selective engineer microbes

Reforestations (Micro Propagation)

• Ex situ conservation activities have been carried out through establishment of gene banks. They have become particularly important for the conservation of crop varieties or Improvement of crops and & a forestation programmed. The UNEP has advocated for in-situ and ex-situ conservation efforts. However, funds for ex-situ conservation have been enhanced recently. A special emphasis has been given to a forestation since forest is a good source of food, fodder, fiber and pulp. Moreover they help in maintaining climatic stability and biodiversity. It has been shown that degraded lands can be effectively used and restored by planting forests. Using trees of wide adaptability and productivity for this purpose clonal propagation method have been prescribed rather than using seeds of uncertain genetic quality. Clonal micro propagation can be achieved through techniques of tissue culture. It has been estimated that multiplication state of 100-200 per year is technically possible for many species towards these objective genotypes capable of growing well on degraded land have been selected for mass propagation/multiplication.

• The clonal multiplication involves 4 steps. 

• 1. Maintaining an aseptic culture.

• 2. Shoot multiplication using apical meristem or buds.

• 3. Rooting of in vitro forms shoots. 

• 4. Acclimatization and transfer of micro propagated plantlets to the field. According to an estimate in 1990 500 million plants of diverse nature were produced through micro propagation in 60 countries. In New Zealand large number of micro propagation plantlets – Pine trees (Pinus radiata) are been used and it is estimated that 2 million plantlets were in the field in the year 1992.

Stress Tolerant Plant

• A large number of biotic factors can create stress to the plant as well as animals. The survival of plant under such stress conditions like deserts marshland saline acidic and alkaline condition can be manipulated by suitable strategies. Efforts are under-way for development of plant resistance to such conditions using biotech methods. Cell lines exhibiting resistance or tolerance to salt stress have been selected in a large number of plant species and can be used to reclaim degraded land suffering from salinity.

• These are as follows:

• Brassica sp. Capsicum annum Cider arietinum Citrus aurantium C. sinensis Dacus carota Nicotiana tabacum Oryza sativa Triticum ascidium Sapienses trifloral.

Methods For Reclaiming Land

• 1. Reclamation & management of saline and alkaline soils can be done through: Alkali soils usually contain excessive amounts of sodium and therefore have a poor physical condition. To be reclaimed these soils must be changed chemically and improved physically. The chemical changes consist of exchanging calcium for sodium and thus leaching away the Na salts. Application of PO4 fertilizers is usually recommendable for low phosphorous containing soils. 

• 2. Reclamation of waterlogged land: Agricultural land is said to be waterlogged when its fertility is affected by the height of water table, due to flooding of root zone of plants, ill-aeration results. They can be made productive by providing efficient surface drainage and sub-surface drainage: 

• 1. Pipe/tile drains 

• 2. Deep open trenches 

• 3. Reclamation of soils damaged by sea water: Areas near seacoasts suffer occasional flooding by seawater. In such cases soils have reclaimed by pumping out the excess salts, water & drainage e.g. Netherlands. 

• 4. Reclamation of mined wasteland: Mining and its allied works have ravaged the land surface. To reclaim such ravaged lands species selected should be able to quickly grow and effectively stabilize and improve the soil. Mixture of grasses rather than woody perennials is preferred. 

Reclamation Work In India

• In India reclamation of limestone & rock phosphate mines in Dehradun and Mussoorie has been successfully accomplished with the help of Pinus, Ledru, Acacia sp. The story of degeneration and regeneration of Jaba-poor tribal districts of Madhya Pradesh bordering Gujarat is also satisfactory. It was reclaimed with watershed development in mid 1990' s under the Rajiv Gandhi Mission. In 1993, the intervention of a NGO, the Samaj Pragati Sahyog in Meekhead, a remote Village in Dewes district of M.P. took a number of watershed development activities. An area of nearly 300 m2 has been reclaimed in Baiera Village (Kandra, H.P.) by an old co-operative farming society (1965-66).

Conclusion

• All these instances show that the regeneration of the environment is possible with political will, competent and committed bureaucratic support, people’s participation & enforcement of stringent laws.

Consumerism and Waste Products 

• Increase in demand on depleting resources is never-ending and human beings quest to achieve breakthroughs in technical advancements will never be final. People to satisfy their wants and lead a more comfortable life relate the concept of consumerism to increased usage of consumer goods. People easily adapt to disposable life-style as it leads to a cut down on household chores. The market forces devise such things to sell comfort to people, which attract people, the most. Soon people realize that comfort has become the necessity of life. The Indian market trend and culture is fast adapting to the western society where packed food material and other life supporting commodities are readily available in packed condition. Market strategies set to work trying new tactics to get consumers buy more. People in turn make consumption a way of their life, which leads to generation of solid Waste problems. People consume and throwaway the refuge at an ever-growing rate.

Residues and Wastes

• As man engages in the activities associated with living, wastes are produces, these are products, which have no apparent useful purpose, or they are of such marginal utility that recovery is uneconomical. Such products include human, residential, agricultural, commercial and industrial wastes of all kinds. The continuous removal and safe disposal of these wastes is essential to the continued existence of any community. These wastes may be solid, liquid or gaseous. Bodily discharges have historically been considered to be very hazardous to mankind. Intestinal diseases are readily transmitted where water or food is contaminated directed or indirectly by human wastes. Such wastes also provide a medium for fly breeding. Food scraps and waste food constitute garbage. When combined with other household waste, residential refuse is generated. The organic portion will attract and sustain flies and rats. Where wastes are water-carried, pollution of water supplies may occur. Commercial and industrial liquid wastes may contain particulate and chemical pollutants.

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

• (No. 29 of 1986) An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stokholm in June 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of human environment, Short Title, Extent and Commencement

•  1. This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. 

• 2. It extends to the whole of India. 

• 3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act and for different areas. 

Air Pollution Act, 1981

• An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters’ connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment hold in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution and whereas it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.

• 1. This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. 

• 2. It extends to the whole of India. 

• 3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, appoint.

Water Pollution Act, 1974

• An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Board powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith. Whereas it is expedient to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution and for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto.

• Short title, application and commencement

• 1. This Act may be called the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, 

• 2. It applies in the first instance to the whole of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and. Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union Territories; and it 

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

• An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals and birds and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. 

• Short title, extent and commencement

• 1 This Act may be called the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 

• 2 It extends, in the first instance, to the whole of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and to all the Union territories; and it shall also extend to such other State as may adopt this Act by resolution passed in that behalf in pursuance of CI. (1) of Art. 252 of the Constitution. It shall come into force in a State of Union territory to which it extends, or may become extended in future, on such date as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act or for different States or Union territories.

• The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like animal, animal article, big game, board, captive animal, cattle, chief wild life warden, closed area, collector, commencement of this act, dealer, director, game reserve, government property, habitat, hunting, land, license, manufacturer, meat, national park, notification, permit person, prescribed, sanctuary, small game, special game, state government, taxidermy, trophy, uncured trophy, vehicle, vermin, weapon, wild animal, wild life, wile life warden.

Forest Conservation Act

• Development of forest is guided by the policies adopted by a nation to manage them. Scientific forestry was adopted in India since over a century back. Country’s first forest policy was enunciated in 1894. After the Independence Indian Republic therefore formulated her National Forest Policy in 1952. The National Commission on Agriculture established in 1970 went into the forestry situation in the country and suggested a need for a new forest policy, in their Report of 1976. The Constitution of the Independent India placed forests under the State List of the Seventh Schedule in 1950. The States were vested with the administration of the forests. The Constitution has recognized the importance of protectionof forests and their improvement. It is stipulated in Article 48-A, that the State shall endeavourer to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.

• Forests play three important roles in national economy of any country, they are: (a) protective, (b) productive, and (c) as a source of accessory benefits. This calls for an effective legislation. The Indian Forest Act, 1927, is in force today for the same purpose. Similarly, a comprehensive legislation for the protection of wildlife and nature is to be found in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Forest Policy of 1894

• Enunciated in 1894 India’s first Forest Policy laid down ‘public benefit’ as the sole objective of the administration of public forest. The Policy suggested the maintenance of forests in hilly areas for preservation of climatic and physical conditions and for protection of cultivated plains below from the divesting action of hill torrents. Forests with valuable timbers were to be managed on commercial lines. The forests of inferior quality were to be managed mainly in the interest of local population. 

• Guiding Principles for Forest Policy

•  India’s Forest Policy was revised once again in 1988. The main plan of the revised Forest Policy of 1988 is protection, conservation and development of forests. Its aims are (i) maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of ecological balance, (ii) conservation of natural heritage, (iii) check on soil erosion and denudation in catchments area of rivers, lakes and reservoir, (iv) check on extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts, (v) substantial increase in forest/tree cover through massive a forestation and social forestry programmers, (vi) steps to meet requirements of fuel for wood, fodder, minor forest produce and soil timber of rural and tribal populations, (vii) increase in productivity of forest to meet the national needs; (viii) encouragement of efficient utilization of forest produce and optimum substitution of wood, and (ix) steps to create massive people’s participation with involvement of women to achieve the objectives and minimize pressure on existing forests.

Forest Conservation

• The increasing destruction and degradation of forests and tree lands especially in the Himalayas and other hill areas, is leading to heavy erosion of topsoil, erratic rainfall and recurring floods. Another area of concern has been degradation of forests due to biotic pressure. Guidelines have been framed for preparation of working plans and felling in forests. Some of the salient features are (i) working plans should be up-to-date and stress conservation (ii) preliminary working plan should have a multidisciplinary approach, (iii) tribal rights and concessions should be high-lighted along with control mechanisms, (iv) grazing should be studied in detail and specific prescriptions should cover fodder propagation, (v) shifting cultivation and encroachments need to be controlled (vi) clearfelling with artificial regeneration should be avoided as far as possible and clear-felling blocks should not exceed ten hectare in hills and 25 hectare area in plains, and (vii) banning all felling above 1,000 meter altitude for a few years should be considered to allow these areas to recover. Critical areas in hills and catchments areas prone to landslips, erosion, etc. should be totally protected and quickly afforested.

Issues involved in enforcement of Environmental, Legislation. 

• Politics and the environment cannot be separated. The late 1980s and early 1990s witnessed a new international concern about the environment, both in the developed and developing nations of the world. Environmentalism is also seen as a growing factor in international relations. This concern is leading to international cooperation where only tension has existed before. While there exists no world political body that can enforce international environmental protection, the list of multilateral environmental organizations is growing. 

• There is no international legislature with authority to pass laws; nor are there international agencies with power to regulate resources on a global scale. An international court at the Hague in the Netherlands has no power to enforce its decisions. Nations can simply ignore the court if they wish. This environmental “coming of age” is reflected in the broadening of intellectual perspective. Governments used-to be preoccupied with domestic environmental affairs. Now, they are beginning to broaden their scope to confront problems that cross international borders, such as transboundary air and water pollution, and threats of a planetary nature, such as stratospheric ozone depletion and climatic warming. It is becoming increasingly evident that only decisive mutual action can secure the kind of world we seek.

Indian scenario

• Laws need to be strengthened and implemented properly to protect the environment. Although India has a number of rules and regulations to protect the environment they have still not reached the stage of full compliance. The growth of environmental laws is a reflection of the speed with which environmentalism has established itself as a potent political force. But many of the laws are either trivial or short-lived and vulnerable to political pressure. Politicians do not violate laws, but the laws are so modified to suit their vested interests. Environment regulations may thus be modified to tap the tourist potential of an area or to set up some other industry. There have been many instances where laws have been changed to accommodate commercialization in hill areas. 

• The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, gives wildlife wardens the power to protect animals in wildlife parks and sanctuaries. But we also find that these wardens exercise their power on traditional entertainers. Monkey, bear and snakes shows on streets are a common scene. The state earns money by putting wild animals on exhibition in zoological parks and permits circus companies to train animals for entertainment to earn profit. Environmental values are difficult to integrate into Indian law. Though regulatory controls have become stricter, the state of the environment has not improved because of the financial crunch, absence of basic infrastructure, reliance on litigation, absence of comprehensive industrial location policy and absence of relevant technology.

Public Awareness

• Environmental Science aims at creating understanding among masses of the delicate balance, which exists, between natural environment and its dependents (humans) to optimize the exploitation of resources on economic basis, which would lead to sustainable development. Secondly, it encourages students and researchers to make careers in the field of environment knowledge of the basic principles of ecology and environmental science would inbuilt a sense of duty in the citizens to care and. manage the natural resources on an optimal basis. Such awareness is essential because the causes and solutions to environmental problems are often linked.

• Environmental awareness increases easily in financially stable and better-educated people through book reading, films, newspaper, magazines and other electronic media. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can play a better role in spread of information ‘up to village levels. Addressing issues of environmental significance to private voluntary organizations, NGOs, farmers, organizations, cooperatives, schools, universities - and private entrepreneurs, can increase public awareness. This would bring more information to bear on the planning process. Among the various sources, which can increase the public awareness the role of mass media, is vibrant. It is so because people love to watch T.V., listen radio, read newspaper and magazines.

Suggestions

• It is an effective tool for the spread of Environmental Science. 

• Media people should be trained in addressing environmental issues to the public.

• Special employees should be deputed in press, radio and T.V. media.

• Environmental folk plays, puppet shows etc. should be organized to make the ignorant and simple people aware of the present-day problems.

• Drawing, craft and essay writing contests can be used as an effective tool at school level. 

• Visual, and calligraphic displays should be mounted in trains and buses as these are used by common masses.

• Storybooks and cartoon network can help the future generation to Mould itself according to environmental needs.